Cognition

Cogito ergo sum

Cogito ergo sum

I think therefore I am

Concepts

A mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli

What is a necessary concept?

A characteristic that must be present for something to belong to a category but alone does not guarantee category membership.

What is a sufficient concept?

A characteristic that, if present, guarantees membership in a category but is not necessarily required for all instances.

Prototype theory

A model suggesting that we categorize objects based on a mental "prototype," or the most typical example, rather than strict rules.

• reflects how people intuitively categorize based on typical examples and flexible features rather than strict definitions.

• By comparing them to existing prototypes, making it easier to place items with mixed or less typical features into a category.

What is Exemplar theory?

New items are categorized by comparing them to the most similar exemplars in memory, allowing for flexible classification.

• You might identify a new dog by comparing it to specific dogs you've seen before, like a German Shepherd or a Chihuahua.

Concept

A mental representation that helps us categorize and understand objects, ideas, events, or experiences by grouping them based on shared characteristics.

Category-specific deficits

• Damage to the front part of the left temporal lobe: Causes difficulty identifying humans

• Damage to lower left temporal lobe: Trouble identifying animals

• Damage where temporal and occipital lobes meet: Trouble naming tools

Are our Brains prewired?

• Research studies examined adults who have been blind since birth

• Category-specific brain organization is innately determined

  • And your experiences shape that

What is Rational Decision Making

A systematic process of selecting the best option from available alternatives by maximizing benefits and minimizing costs, based on logical reasoning, objective analysis, and conscious choice, ensuring consistency in the decision-making process.

Rational Choice Theory

Classical view that decisions are made by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two

Are humans rational?

Not so much

• We used shortcuts

• We are easily engaged in and led by…

• We are influenced by confirmation biases

• Being truly rational = making trade-offs

  • Being slow in decision-making

Heuristics

A “rule of thumb” for judgement and decision-making

Algorithm

Guarantees the correct answer

A mental shortcut

A cognitive strategy or heuristic that allows individuals to make quick judgments and decisions without extensive reasoning or analysis.

Tversky and Kahneman (1984)

“A person is said to employ the availability heuristic whenever he estimates frequency or probability by the ease with which instances or associations could be brought to mind”

Availability Heuristic

• A cognitive bias that occurs when individuals judge the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind, often influenced by recent experiences or vivid memories.

• It can lead individuals to overestimate the probability of events that are more memorable or dramatic, such as natural disasters or crimes, while underestimating less sensational but more common events.

Why is the Availability Heuristic useful?

It enables individuals to make quick judgments and decisions based on readily available information, which can be practical in everyday situations where time and resources are limited.

Why is availability heuristic misleading?

Individuals may overestimate the probability of dramatic or sensational events, such as plane crashes or shark attacks, because they are more memorable or widely reported.

Representative Heuristic

Classifying something based on how similar you perceive it to be to the typical case or category

What are the problems with Representativeness Heuristic

• By relying on representative traits or characteristics, individuals may make sweeping generalizations about groups, leading to unfair and inaccurate stereotypes.

• Decision is biased to match expectation (and ignores probabilities)

Conjunction fallacy

A cognitive error where individuals assume that specific conditions are more probable than a single general one, often misjudging the likelihood of two events occurring together as being greater than the likelihood of one event occurring alone.

Tversky and Kahneman (1983)

Tversky & Kahneman (1983) used the Linda
probability task. The participants (83%) chose option
B, Linda is regarded as “representative” of a feminist

Optimism Bias

• People believe that, compared with other individuals, they are more
  likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future.

• Earlier research findings suggest that optimism bias is greater in North
  Americans than in individuals from eastern cultures.

• More recent research studies examined optimism bias concerning the
  risk of natural disasters and terrorist attacks, and reported similar
  findings.

Anchoring Heuristic

• A cognitive bias where individuals rely heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making decisions or judgments, often leading to skewed assessments.

• When consumers see a product originally priced at $100 discounted to $70, they may perceive the sale price as a better deal due to the initial anchor of $100, regardless of the product's actual value.

Anchoring and Adjustment

• A mental shortcut

• People tend to start from the first part of the problem (the
  anchor) and then adjust from there.

• Practical application

Prospect Theory

• Describes how people choose between different options
  (or prospects) and how they estimate (many times in a
  biased or incorrect way) the perceived likelihood of each
  of these options

  • People try to avoid loss.

  • People simplify available information (certainty effect).

  • People choose the prospect with the best value (expected
    utility)

Certainty

People choose to take on a risk when evaluating potential losses
and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains.

Why do people often remain loyal to a specific product, service, website, or other tool?

We can either risk using something else that has a possibility of being better than our current method (but might be worse – a loss), or we can continue to use our tried-and-true tool.

Expected Utility

Expected utility is a cognitive process through which individuals assess the potential benefits and drawbacks of different choices under uncertainty, taking into account the likelihood of various outcomes and their corresponding utilities. It is based on the premise that people will choose the option that maximizes their expected satisfaction or happiness.

Reasoning and the Brain

Reasoning is the cognitive process of drawing conclusions, making inferences, and solving problems based on given information or premises. It involves logical thinking and the application of knowledge to arrive at conclusions.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in reasoning?

The prefrontal cortex is a critical brain region involved in higher-order cognitive functions, including reasoning, decision-making, planning, and problem-solving. It helps integrate information, evaluate options, and control impulses.

What is the role of the Frontal lobe in reasoning?

The frontal lobe is responsible for executive functions, which include planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and cognitive flexibility. These processes are essential for effective reasoning.

The Neuroscience of Risky Decision-Making

The prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in evaluating risks, planning, and regulating impulses during decision-making processes. Part of understanding that risk is the emotional information that helps you guide those risky choices.