every single case study

describe the physical geography of ethiopia

• divided into 3 different physical zones - the western highlands, eastern lowlands, and the central area

• western highlands is the wettest region, with 1 long rainy season may-oct. average 1200~1300 mm of rain this land is good for crops

• eastern lowlands have 2 rainy seasons and 2 dry seasons (june-sept, dec-feb) but it is very unreliable, temperatures are usually 30-40C

• central area has 2 rainy, 1 dry seasons. temperature between 25-40C

agriculture in ethiopia

• principal crops include coffee, pulses (beans), oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and veg

  • extremely unreliable due to crops being easily affected by the climate

  • time consuming

  • ethiopia is landlocked - has no access to a port

• exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities, and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner

• ethiopia is also africa’s 2nd biggest maize producer

• ethiopia is in a trade deficit

how does ethiopia’s trade affect its development?

• ethiopia is currently in a trade deficit (more imports than exports).

• in order to move through rostow’s model of development, this has to be reduced so that ethiopia can spend more money on health, education, infrastructure, etc

• ethiopia transports a narrow range of primary produce

  • this is vulnerable to climate change, global economics and price fluctuations

  • also issues with storage and transportation

  • which will affect the quality and quantity of yield

TNCs and LIDCs (ethiopia) (adv.)

• TNCs provide new job opportunities, which allows people to gain new skills

• new technology can be brought over to poorer countries

• money is spent to improve the local infrastructure (eg. roads)

TNCs and LIDCs (ethiopia) (disadv.)

• jobs are not always secure

• most TNCs are from ACs so the money made usually goes back to the HQ there

• wages are very low

• employees work very long hours and in poor conditions

aid in ethiopia - Goat Aid

• pair of goats are given to a girl

• goats are bred to create a flock

• milk is used to drink / make cheese, meat can be eaten

• nutrition improves - better health

• surplus - money is invested in education, clothing, food

• social status and wealth improve, flock is rebred

• cycle continues

aid - debt

• in 2006 ethiopia benefitted from debt relief

• in 1995, the national economy was in debt by 155% ($10B)

• by 2012, the debt has declined to 21% of the national economy ($7B)

• however ethiopia still depends on international aid of over $550M each year

top-down dev. in ethiopia

• the government has been investing 60% of its national income into education, health and infrastructure to improve quality of life

• the growth and transformative plan aims to develop industry, expand services and boost the economy

• there has also been investment in energy provision including renewable energy

  • wind turbines in Tigray State

  • hydroelectric power systems on the Omo River Valley

Gibe III dam on Omo River advantages

$1.8B project which began to generate electricity in 2015

• renewable energy, so does not contribute to climate change

• expected to supply over ½ its power to Ethiopia → will greatly improve people’s quality of life (less than 2% of the rural population, which is 85% of the total population have access to the grid)

• other half is dispatchable → allows Ethiopia to trade with something which is reliable and boost GDP, as electricity has more value than coffee

• flood protection

• reduction in the impact of droughts

Gibe III dam disadvantages

• will affect the ecosytem of the region by altering the seasonal flooding which reduces downstream volume

• estimated more than 200000 people rely on the river for some form of subsistence (agriculture, fishing etc) - many of these groups live in chronic hunger

• destruction of hundreds of thousands of fisheries

• inter-ethnic conflict

• could land Ethiopia in more debt

bottom - up dev. in ethiopia

• Farm Africa has provided support to ethiopian farmers since 1988

• works with local communities to breed goats and chickens + create beehives in rural areas

• the NGO works with local farmers and educates them on how to use the equipment

• communities share this training with others

Goat Aid - disadv + adv

• cycle of improved prosperity

• the maure fertiliser can cause eutrophication

beehives - advantages

• provided to 540 farmers which provides steadyy and reliable income

irrigation + training - advantages

• one farmer earnt over 236000 ETB (760 pounds)

• less affected by drought

Extreme weather----> Typhoon Haiyan (non-Uk)

Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines on Saturday, 9th November 2013

Life in the Philippines

• population is growing rapidly (1.7% annually)

• very populates (7th most populous nation in Asia)

• EDC = average GDP per capita of $2765

• Prone to earthquakes, volcanoes, seasonal tropical storms.

• Tropical maritime climate divided into 3 sections;

• tag-innit: hot/dry summer season, march-may

• tag-ulan: rainy/monsoon season, june-november

• tag-lamig: cool/dry season, december-feburary

Causes of Typhoon Haiyan

• deep ocean water with temps above 26.5C

• coriolis effect started the storm spinning

• storm moved westwards, growing as it moved over the warm ocean

• low air pressure caused a storm surge reaching 6 meters in places

Social impacts of typhoon Haiyan

• In Tacloban (220,000 people) (density of 1100 people/km^2) 90% of buildings were destroyed

• 5 million people became homeless

• 6340 fatalities occurred, real number is 10,000

• damage to 571 health clinics and hospitals

Economic impacts of typhoon Haiyan

• essential infrastructure was destroyed

• 25.2% people live below poverty line

• $2.86 billion of damage

• 77% of farmers and 74% of fisherman lost main source of income

Environmental impacts of typhoon Haiyan

• estimated wind speeds of 314km/h and pressure of 895mb

• storm surge of 7.5m (coast) and 5m surge hit Tacloban

• crops were damages, trees uprooted, punctured barge leaked 85,000 litres of oil into the sea

Why was Typhoon Haiyan so devastating?

• 15 foot high storm surge

• hit a major city at it's climax

• unexpected flood water up to 20ft deep

• category 5 typhoon

• remote areas ----> difficult for aid

Coordination of response- typhoon Haiyan

• coordinated by WHO and UN

Short term aid of typhoon Haiyan

• UN appealed for £190 million emergency aid

• WHO managed healthcare workers

• Australia put together an $28 million package

Long term aid of typhoon Haiyan

• By april 2014, services had been restored to 560 schools, 220 rural health centres and 30 hospitals

• 1500km of roads and 1100km of drainage canals had been repaired

• schemes to clean debris, manage waste and plant mangroves were introduced

Extreme weather----> UK heatwave 2018 (UK)

It began on the 22nd June 2018

What's a heatwave?

A period of unusually hot weather, that typically lasts for 2 or more days. The temperature has to be outside the historical averages for the area.

Causes of UK heatwave

• The jet stream was further north than usual

• causing a high pressure weather system to stay over the UK + Europe without being moved away by the jet stream

• parts of the south-east had almost no recordable rainfall for over 6 weeks

Social impacts of the UK heatwave

• end of august 2018, reservoir stocks were at 65% causing dehydration and water shortages

• 25th June - 9th July, registered deaths were 663 higher than average

• 150 people were evacuated due to a wildfire in Great Manchester

Economic impacts of the UK heatwave

• UK economy gained £31 billion from heatwave, mainly from tourism (57% of population choose to stay in the UK for 'staycations')

• low food supply ---> prices rose by 5%

• ice cream industry rose by 24% in stocks

• burger sales rose by 14.4%

Environmental impacts of UK heatwave

• fire in Great Manchester extinguished on the 18th July (burning for 3 weeks) but ecological impacts could last for 15 years

• food yields decreased by 20%

Response to UK heatwave

• to help transport systems, gritting trucks were sued to create a non-stick surface to limit long term damage to roads

• trains went slower, causing delays, as heat was causing metal rains to expand and buckle

• train rails were painted white to reflect heat

• the government let farmers take more water than usually allowed (controversial)

How would the impacts have been different if the heatwave had continued for another week?

• complete drought

• more deaths

• strain on NHS

• damage on the economy

How would the impacts have been different if the heatwave had continued for two more months?

• more wildfires

• even more deaths

• no water --> can't put out fires

Urban futures ---> Lagos, Nigeria (EDC)

• situated on the coast

• To the east, the delta region around Port Harcourt is the location of massive oil reserves (oil industry)

• Lagos used to the capital of Nigeria (switched to Abuja in 1991)

• megacity of over 14 million people

Lagos- regional importance

• largest city in Nigeria

• magnet for migrants, trans-national investors and traditionally oil companies but now financial companies

Lagos - world importance

• the port facility on Tin Can island connects Nigeria to the world through global trade

• Nigeria is an oil rich nation, and predicted to be one of the largest economies in the world

Lagos- Site importance

Lagos developed on the west side of the sheltered Lagos lagoon, next to the Bight of Benin on the Atlantic ocean

Lagos- situation importance

• located on a flat exposure of land enabling the city to sprawl north and westwards

• it's well connected to the rest of Nigeria through transport routes

Development of Lagos - 1900 to 2015

1900- small fishing settlement established on island with easy access to the Lagoon and Atlantic

1965- expanded to mainland, headed north to Victoria island, followed a linear pattern along major transport routes. Lagos airport was built in 1947.

1990- population increases and rapid expansion in all directions. 3 main bridges connected the islands to the mainland. A container port on Tin Can island increased global links. Slums in Maroko were cleared and developed elsewhere.

2015- became a megacity in 2010. Eko Atlantic started in 2009. Urban sprawl push development further northwest.

How has Lagos changed?

1. Rural to urban migration = reasons to leave the rural areas (lacks of jobs and safety) (e.g. the oil regions around Port Harcourt). Climate change is bringing unreliable rainfall to the north of Nigeria. Reasons to go to Lagos (job opportunities in manufacturing, e.g. Ikeja, construction and services)

2. Natural increase = young adults living in Lagos have children of thier own and people are living longer- the birth rates are higher than the death rates ----> population rises

Lagos population growth

1. growing rapidly due to rural-urban migration. Migrants arrive in the city, creating an outwards urban sprawl into surrounding countryside and towns.

2. The majority of people come from within Nigeria, seeking better jobs, incomes are about 4 times higher here than in rural areas

3. International migration from neighbouring countries (e.g. Niger, Chad). Also migration from US, UK and china mainly by people employed by foreign businesses in Lagos.

4. Migration has impacted the city's character ---> More diverse population

5. The city has become overcrowded, congested and polluted. Because Lagos is on the coast there isn't room to expand so population densities are very high

Distinct ways of life in Lagos

• thriving music scene, introducing new music styles (Afrobeat and Afro hip-hop)

• large film industry, producing 'nollywood' films.

• western-style fashion is becoming common among richer inhabitants but traditional dress and ways of life (e.g. fishing and making crafts to sell) are still retained

• 250 different ethnic groups (ethnic tension)

• 2/3rds of population live in slums but the rich live in gated communities

• street parties, pool parties and nightclubbing are popular leisure activities.

• many festivals held (Lagos international Jazz festival, Badagry festival and Eyo festival)

• consumption of resources is rising - as people get wealthier than can afford to buy more consumer goods and use more resources

Social opportunities in Lagos

There are 450 billionaires in Lagos, with a further 9100 millionaires

Economic opportunities in Lagos

• low skilled work available in industrial areas (Ikeja and Tin Can island)

• many squatter settlement residents create work in the informal sector of the economy, such as street vending.

• 5000 'rag-pickers' work in Olusosun landfill

Challenges in Lagos - Squatter settlements

• 1.7 million live in poverty in Lagos, have limited access to fresh water, electricity, sewage or education.

• With housing shortages people are being forced to make thier own homes in illegal slum settlements

• Makoko = nicknamed the 'Venice of Africa', approx. 85, 840 residents, houses are made from wood and scrap metal and raised above the lagoon on stilts.

• Ajegunle = in 1972 an estimated 90,000 people lived in 8km^2 of land. Now the population is 1.5 million.

Challenges in Lagos- employment

• 27.6% unemployment rate in 2010

• lack of jobs force people to work in the informal sector of the economy

Challenges in Lagos- congestion and pollution

• commuters can spend up to 3 hours per day in traffic --> bringing air pollution into the city

• industrial areas have weak air/water pollution control

Solutions to Lagos problems

• sustainable urban development = improving life for residents without destroying the opportunities and environment for later generations

• top down = actions undertaken by those in charge of an area (local/national government)

• bottom up - actions undertaken by the people and communities them selves

• NGO (non government organisation) = a charity that is funded by donations and has no formal link to the government (e.g. Red Cross)

Waste Management system - Lagos

• container ships import waste from all over the world

• 10,000 tonnes of waste is delivered each day to Olusosun landfills site

• a community of 5000 rag pickers live next to the landfill and sift through it, earning a good living by selling scrap metal, wires and other waste

• yet there's clear evidence of waste entering waterways and lagoons (not a sustainable long term solution)

• Lagos State Integrated Waste Management project is an initiative that is trying to improve sustainability by reducing landfill waste.

Employment Eko Atlantic - Lagos

• the aim is to provide luxury homes for 250,000 residents, with tree-lined streets.

• new development is 10km^2 and has been created from 3,00,000m^3 of sand.

• wants to welcome 150,000 daily commuters

• investment comes from the Lagos State Government and private companies such as South Energy

• Cons: lavish waste of money, creates social inequality and putting habitats at risk for economic benefit.

• Pros: environmentally sustainable (sand isn't manufactured), more job opportunities and long-term it's good for the economy.

Makoko floating school - Lagos

• built in 2014, taking up to 300 children

• designed by an Nigerian architect working with local people

• part-funded by NGOs and the UN development programme

• it floats to adapt to rising sea levels

• Features include: solar panels on roof, classroom is under wood shelter (away from sun).

• Pros: good economically as the scheme was subsidised and it's environmentally beneficial as it adapts to rising sea levels.
  Cons: on a small scale, not economically sustainable and it's hard to source teachers.

Urban futures ---> London (AC)

Site: Roman London was originally built as a bridging port on the Thames --> developed as a port function

Situation: The flat land gave the city room for expansion with farm land beyond the walls. All travel along the Thames came through the city, so the Romans controlled South-East England

Development of London

• London role as a port declined in the 20th century but it remained the main hub for the UK transport network. The UK's two busiest airports (Heathrow, Gatwick) are close to London.

• The gap between London and the rest of the UK has widened ---> In London the average salary is £34,473 compared to the UK average of £22,044.

• The average house price in London is £514,000 compared to the UK average of £272,000.

• As London grew at the edge, it swallowed up existing villages which managed to retain some of thier original feel (e.g. Camden town and Surbiton)

London's population change (1801 - 2011)

1801 - 1901 = urban growth and urbanisation. London grows due to migration and natural increase, also grows physically at the edge through suburbanisation

1911 - 1971 = Counter-urbanisation. As traffic/crime/pollution increased, the wealthy moved out into rural areas

1981 - 2011 = re-urbanisation. As areas of London became redeveloped and new jobs were available more people were attracted in

Distinct ways of life in London

• London's west end theatres

• world famous museums and art galleries

• fashion centre - London Fashion Week

• High ethnic diversity (e.g. Chinatown)

• Big festivals celebrating different cultures

• Housing in richer areas (west London/suburbs) tend to have modern apartments

• housing in poorer areas (inner city/ east London) has a higher housing density

• there's many leisure activities (Hyde park, cinemas, pubs, clubs)

• London hosted the Olympics in 2012

• Londoners consume nearly 7 million tones of food every year

What challenges does London face?

1. Inequality: London is the wealthiest city in the UK, but social deprivation affects 2 million people. Redevelopment projects help with this.

2. Housing: 66,000 new homes are needed each year, recent buildings have averages 20,000 per year. New homes can be built on 'brownfield' sites (old industrial waste land) or 'greenfield' sites (open space on the edge of urban areas).

3. Transport: around 3 million people use the London underground train network every day, with population increase this will strain the transport network.

4. Pollution and waste: Air pollution from cars means 2 million Londoners (including 400,000 children and 450 schools) live in areas of pollution above legal limits. 1/4 of London's waste goes to landfills.

Solution to London's housing problem

• London Living Rent

• helps Londoners on average income ---> gives them a below market rent, enabling them to save a deposit to buy thier own home.

• to be eligible for the scheme: have a max household income of £60,000, live/work in London, have a formal tenancy.

• It's sustainable because it relieves people of a large portion of thier rent, allowing them to save money to purchase a house in the future.

UK relief

Mountains - NW, especially in Scotland and Wales

more lowland towards the south and east

• prevailing wind blows from the SW, from the atlantic ocean

• when air carrying moisture reaches land, it gets forced up over mountains producing relief rainfall

Sustaining ecosystems ---> Ecotourism in Monteverde

Ecotourism in the Montverde cloud forests in Costa Rica

What's ecotourism?

a type of sustainable development that aims to create employment while contributing to the natural environment, it doesn't damage the environment and is smalls scale and benefits the local people.

Costa Rica- importance and environment

• popular tourist destination

• home to 6% of the world's biodiversity

• attracts 2 million tourists a year

• small country in South America

• 100 times smaller than the Amazon rainforest

• lots of ecosystems: coral reefs, cloud forests, beaches, volcanoes, mangrove swamps and dry/tropical rainforests

Monteverde Cloud forests- importance and environment

• spans 10,500 hectares

• mountain wildlife reserve and one of the most popular tourist destinations in Costa Rica

• Home to 3000 Costa Rican plants, 400 bird species, 100 mammal species and thousands of insect species.

Protecting the environment (Montverde)

• number of tourists is controlled

• roads unpaved ---> access only by 4x4 vehicles

• specific trails for tourists

• rules: stick to paths, don't feed animals, silent phones ---> limit noise, no flash photography

Importance of education (Montverde)

• Local Santa Elena high school integrates learning about ecology of the reserve into thier curriculum ----> allows pupils to have eco-tourism jobs when older

• The Santa Elena reserve (section ran by school) furthermore disperses and diverts tourists

Successes and flaws of ecotourism in Montverde

• Montverde still attracts approx. 70,000 tourists a year --> benefits local economy

• harmonious relationship between people and the wildlife

• increasing number of tourists --> more accommodation/facilities --> loss of land

• inevitably some environmental damage occurs

Sustaining ecosystems- (small scale) - (Arctic)

Sustainable tourism in Svalbard

Key facts about Svalbard

• population of 2700

• consists of 5 major islands

• covers and area of 62,500km^2

• lies 840km north of Norway

• over 60% of land surface is covered by glaciers and ice caps

• average temperature in feb is -16c

• Discovered in 1506, but it's been apart of Norway since 1920

Positive impacts of tourism in Svalbard

• provides 300 full-time jobs

• attracts wealthy tourists

• In 2013, nearly 70,000 tourists visited Longyearbyen, around 30,000 of which were cruise ship passengers

Negative impacts of tourism in Svalbard

• footpath erosion caused by tourists walking on tundra, compacting the sparse vegetation and soil

• in 2013 the number of sites where cruise ship passengers went aboard was 172

Sustainable tourists attempts in Svalbard

• The Norwegian authorities are developing Svalbard to be a well-managed wilderness area

• This means controls and restrictions ---> 65% of Svalbard's land is protected by law

Successes of sustainable tourism in Svalbard

• since 2010 tour companies have been prohibited from visiting certain sites considered to be too fragile to sustain tourism

• the AECO helps manage tourism in Svalbard

• the Governor of Svalbard introduced an initiative called 'clean up Svalbard' which encouraged cruise ship passengers to pick up little they find on shore and to bring it to the cruise ship for proper disposal

Sustaining ecosystems- Global scale

The Antarctica treaty

Main aims of the Antarctic treaty

• demilitarise Antarctica

• set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty

• establish it as a nuclear free zone

• promote scientific/logistical co-operation

• freedom for scientific investigation/ research

• promote scientific/logistical co-operation

• protect the Antarctic environment

• ban any mining activities

• ensure all visit comply with the treaty

• preserve historic sites (e.g. Scott/Shackleton's hut)

Key facts about the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)

• came out of the international geographical year of 1957 - 1958

• came into force in June 1961

• 12 countries originally joined, but by 2016 an additional 41 nations had joined

• the current number of signed parties is 54

• the protocol of environmental protection was signed in 1991 and came into force in 1998

The Antarctic treaty is sustainable

• no economic benefit from Antarctica

• maintained peaceful international cooperation

• limited environmental damage

• no armed conflict since signing of the treaty

• permitted Antarctic science to flourish

The Antarctic treaty isn't sustainable

• not all nations have signed 54 / 195

• the ATS doesn't provide any benefits to countries unable to pay for expensive scientific research

• it doesn’t include any terms about climate change

Distinctive landscapes- coastal landscape (Jurassic coast)

The Jurassic coast

The Jurassic coast - location

• UNESCO World Heritage Site

• coast of Dorset and East Devon

• rocks spanning 185 million years

Deposition landform --> Chesil Beach

• 18 mile long shingle barrier beach from west bay to Isle of Portland

• in places up to 15m high and 200m wide

• pebbles near Portland but smaller rocks at Bridport

Depositional landform --> Mudeford Spit

• prevailing winds from S to SW, 60-70% of year

• beach recharge needed here

• cliffs at eastern Hengistbury head don't get eroded anymore due to rock armour groynes

• base of Hengistbury head is formed from Boscombe sands (friable)

How does climate influence geomorphic processes on the Jurassic coast?

TEMPERATURE

• warm/dry summers (21c) and mild/wet winters (min 3c) ---> freeze-thaw weathering

• salt weathering on coasts as evaporation of sea water causes salt crystals to build up

WIND

• SW prevailing winds --> bring storms from Atlantic

• high energy destructive waves increase erosion

• unstable cliffs ---> mass movement

RAINFALL

• relatively low annual rainfall

• can have heavy winter rainfall during storms

• soils can saturate in winter, causing slumping

• chemical weathering of chalk cliffs (carbonation)

How does geology influence geomorphic processes on the Jurassic coast?

• made of bands of hard chalk + limestone and soft clay

• both discordant and concordant coastlines

• sea levels helped shape the coastline

Erosional landform- Old Harry Rocks

• 2 miles NE of Swanage and 1 mile E of Studland

• lies at E edge of the Isle of Purbeck

• protected by National Trust

• until 1896 there was Old Harry's Wife but a storm caused her to tumble into the sea

• chalk formations (furthest single stack = Harry)

Headland and Bay- Durlston Head, Swanage Bay and Ballard Point

• Swanage is in the SE of the Isle of Purbeck

• the area around Swanage is discordant

• during winter, landslips happen in cliffs as rainfall lubricates the impermeable marl beads with cliffs, causing the Purbeck limestone beds to slip onto the beach below ---> weakening rock

Impact of climate change on Jurassic coast

• warming global temps --> higher sea levels, as ice sheets melt and the sea expands (thermal expansion) ---> sea levels in UK predicted to rise up by 600mm by 2010

• during winter, landslips happen in cliffs as rainfall lubricates the impermeable marl beads with cliffs, causing the Purbeck limestone beds to slip onto the beach below ---> weakening rock

• warmer atmosphere ---> more intense storms ---> powerful large waves --> increase erosion rate

• more intense rainfall ---> cliff weathering --> mass movement of rock

Beach replenishment on the Jurassic coast

• in nov of 2005, 90,00cm^3 of sand was deposited on beach

• beach will need to be recharged with 40,000m^3 of sand every 20 years

• initial plan to replenish beach with 160,000 tons of sand ---> bigger beach + stabilisation of erosion

Sea walls on the Jurassic coast

• Swanage has 1.8km of costal defence works

• sea walls put in, in the late 1900s

• further costal defence added in 1920-1930s

• most cost effective method was the replacement of the 1930s groynes

• sea walls made from concrete + stone

• sea walls --> unmaintained --> £35 million in damage over 50 years

Groynes on the Jurassic coast

• 18 timber groynes, erected in 2005, made from tropical hardwood + recycled groynes

• works completed in june 2006 --> cost £2.2 million

• 1980s --> rock armour at the base of cliffs + ground water drained

How does human activity influence geomorphic processes on the Jurassic coast?

TOURISM

• major tourist attraction

• costal footpaths eroded by walkers + vegetation in trampled --> exposes underlying soil to erosion

• popular landforms: Lulworth cave + Durdle door

MANAGMENT STRATEGIES

• change the natural landscape

• alter costal processes

QUARRYING

• limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland

• exposes large areas of rock --> chemical weathering

winter storm 2014 on the Jurassic Coast

occurred on 5th feb 2014

• damage caused to main railway line from Exeter to Plymouth that runs along a sea wall at Dawlish

SOCIAL EFFECTS

• Jackie Breakspear was trapped in Cove House Inn (Portland, Dorset) with 20m waves

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

• west country was cut off ---> £1.2 billion

• cost £53 million to repair railway

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

• Portland Bill E of Chesil beach was cut off by floodwater

• West Bay was affected by rock falls from cliffs, causing the coast to retreat by a few metres

Distinctive landscapes - River Basin (River Eden)

• source in the Pennines of Hell Gill Force

• mouth in Carlisle

• river located between the Lake District and the Pennines (NW of England)

• approx. 120km long

How does climate affect the River Eden basin?

RAINFALL

• intense rainfall ---> saturated ground ---> unstable/heavier ---> river banks slump

• heavy rain flows into river --> flooding

• high vol of water --> increase transportation --> increase erosion (via abrasion)

TEMPERATURE

• temps can be cold on high ground --> freeze- thaw weathering --> weaken valley sides --> mass movement ---> material added to river load --> more abrasion

CLIMATE

• Cumbria faces SW prevailing winds --> mild/wet climate with cool summers and mild winters

• Cumbria is one of the wettest parts of UK

How does geology affect the River Eden basin?

• hard rock (gritstone) around outside of basin

• igneous rock (W basin) are impermeable (surface streams --> vertical erosion --> v-shaped valley)

• middle/lower course sandstone (soft) --> lateral erosion --> meanders
  

Landforms along the River Eden

• Hell Gill Force waterfall it's near the source, change in rock type from limestone to sandstone

• v-shaped valleys in NE lake District, 600m above sea level

• floodplains in Carlisle (>100m above sea level)

• meanders in Salkeld and Briggle Beck

Flood risk in River Eden (storm Desmond)

• 4th - 5th december 2015

• gales with gusts up to 81mph

• Honister pass (cumbira) recorded 341.4 mm of rainfall in 24 hours (new UK record)

• Carlisle was especially badly affected, with 2100 properties flooded

• in 2010, a £38 million defence scheme was completed for Carlisle --> protect 3000 homes -----> 6 years for scheme to be inadequate

• 40 million l of water and 540 tonnes of debris had to be cleared from McVities factory, which employs 640 people locally

• Carlisle was cut off, 2.5m of water flooded fire station

Management strategies in River Eden Basin

CARLISLE FLOOD DEFENCE SCHEME

• after 3 major flood events in a decade, the council created a new scheme with higher flood defences

• a further £24 million was invested

• the Lowther estate is proposing to plant 213,000 trees over 170 hectares of the estate ---> most productive woodland creation site in England from more that 25 years

FLOOD WALLS + EMBANKMENTS

• 10km of raised flood defences have been built along river Eden and Caldew

RESERVOIRS

• Castle Carrock Beck to the SE of Carlisle has been dammed to create a reservoir

AFFORESTATION

• near Dalston (S of Carlisle), 1000 trees have been planted

CHANNEL MANAGEMENT

• artificial meanders put in on the River Lyvennet to the SW of Appleby

Human activity in the River Eden basin

DEFORESTATION

• natural woodland + heathland have been cleared from upland areas

• increases surface runoff when its rains ---> more water in river, quicker ---> increase in volume ---> more energy ---> erosion ---> sliding river banks

FARMING

• upland areas drained of moisture for farming

• reduces stability of soil ---> soil washed into river by rain ---> increased river load ---> increases deposition downstream ---> changes floodplain from natural state

Food insecurity in the UK → Food Consumption

decreased from about 2350 to around 2150 calories

• this is because people are becoming more aware about obesity + health risks

• spikes in cost of food → price of wheat peaked in 2022, price of rice peaked in 2008.

food availability

• High - most people have enough to eat. teh UK produces around 60% of the food it needs, but imports up to 80% of fruit and veg.

• people are also affected by where food comes from (eg. homegrown food availability can decrease if crops fail = decreased imports)

• CAP (common agricultural policy) was introduced in the 1950s and intensified agriculture

• since 1960s, more demand for seasonal products all year round

food poverty

not enough money to buy sufficiently nutritious food

• can be long term and short term

• leaves many people reliant on food banks

struggle as it is not easily accessible in their community

• “food deserts → where people have limited / little access to big supermarkets → forced to go to convienience stores“

4.2M people were living in food poverty (2020~1), and 9% of children were food insecure.

3.1M of adults reported not eating for a whole day because they could not afford or access food