midterm psych study

what are the two main branches of psychology?

clinical and experimental

what makes psychology a science?

generation of hypothesis and demands of rigorous evidence

who created dualism and what is it?

Rene Descartes (1600’s)

Believed in a material body and immaterial soul (the mind and body are separate). Stated that thought cannot be explained in terms of the physical body.

Who expanded on Rene Descartes view and what did he say?

Hobbes (1600’s)

Went on to say that functions of the brain could be described through physical processes.

what is phrenology and who created it?

Franz Josef Gall (1800’s)

Went on to say that specific parts of the brain controlled specific personalities and that relative abilities or weaknesses could be measured by bumps on the head.

who created structuralism and what is it?

Wundt and Tichner (1800-1900’s)

Tried to break down different conscious experiences into basic elements in order to understand how the brain organizes experiences.

what scientific approach does structuralism use and what is it?

introspection is a subjective approach based off experience where one tries to examine or observe another’s mental and emotional processes.

what is the problem with introspection?

everyone experiences things differently so it cannot accurately describe how everyone will experience an event.

what is empiricism and who created it?

John Locke (1600’s)

Proposed the mind was a blank slate and all knowledge is gained with later experience in life. Also brought up the point that different experiences lead to different outcomes.

what is nativism and who created it?

Noam Chomsky (1900’s)

Believed some people are born with prior knowledge inborn within them. Also explained that our visual system is prepared to organize new input.

what is a priori and a posteriori knowledge?

a priori = knowledge inborn within humans to deal with the world

a posteriori = knowledge gained with experience and learning

a posterior affects a priori

what is behaviouralism and who created it?

Watson and Skinner (mid-1900’s)

Focused on observable behaviour and had no focus on mental processes. Explained that positive consequences lead to an increased behaviour while negative consequences lead to a decreased behaviour.

what is the SQ3R method?

it is a reading comprehension method broken down into 5 steps:

survey, question, read, recite, review.

What are the 5 methods of knowledge acquisition?

Tenacity = “its always been that way”

Intuition = “it feels right”

Authority = “the boss said its true”

Rationalism = “it makes sense logically”

Empiricism = “i observed it to be true”

identify and order the steps of the scientific method

1) identify problem

2) collect information

3) generate hypothesis

4) design and conduct experiment

5) analyze data and conclude

6) repeat from hypothesis

what is a case study? is it high or low constraint?

detailed examination of a particular case, group, or event, to describe an issue and possible apply it to other similar cases. (low constraint)

what are the pros and cons of case studies?

Pros:

• can be used to understand extreme cases that are unethical to create

• good for giving ideas for future research

Cons:

• usually only descriptive not explanatory

• limited generalizability and hard to apply to a large group of people

what is naturalistic observation? is it low or high constraint?

qualitative research method where you record the behaviours of research subjects in a real world setting. (low constraint)

what are the pros and cons of naturalistic observation?

Pros:

• can be good for future research ideas

• see “true behaviour”

• can verify lab results

Cons:

• usually only descriptive not explanatory

• no random selection

• no control over groups under observation

what is participant observation? is it low or high constraint?

qualitative research method when the researcher is immersed into the setting or group, while observing the behaviours and interactions of the participants. (low constraint)

what are the pros and cons of participant observation?

Pros:

• can provide more insight on participants behaviour

Cons:

• subjects may alter their behaviour (hawthorne effect)

what is a a survey? is it low or high constraint?

a series of questions asked to the respondents in order to understand their thought processes and mental state. (low constraint)

what types of bias are there in surveys?

Volunteer bias: The idea that people who volunteer to participate in studies do not represent the general population

Response rate: The number of people who completed the survey over a sum of people

Non-response rate = people who did not complete the survey

Response bias: Describe a number of conditions or factors that cue respondents to provide inaccurate or false answers

what is correlational research? is it low or high constraint?

researcher is looking for a relationship between two variables with no manipulations where they have limited control over variables. (slightly higher in constraint)

what is experimental research? is it low or high constraint?

Random assignment to groups and control of other variables allows inference of causality. Includes an IV, DV, experimental group, and control group. (higher constraint)

what are the pros and cons of experimental research?

Pros:

• can establish causal relationship between variables

Cons:

• artificial

• not always ethical

what research design allows for causal conclusions

experimental research

what is an independant variable?

variable that is manipulated

what is a dependant variable?

variable that is measured

what is random assignment?

every participant has an equal chance of being in either the experimental group or the control group.

what is matching?

a technique used to evaluate the effect of a treatment by comparing the treated and the non-treated units in an observational study.

how do random assignment and matching ensure similarity in control and experimental groups?

makes sure any differences are due to random factors and not researcher bias like sampling or selection bias.

what are the three measures of central tendency?

mean - average

mode - most common

median - middle

what are the three measures of central dispersion?

range - difference between min and max

variance - varying data

standard deviation - measure of variation or dispersion

what are the 4 main structures in the hindbrain?

• pons

• reticular formation

• medulla

• cerebellum

what are the functions of the medulla? what happens if its damaged?

• connects brain and spinal cord

• controls unconscious and essential body functions

damage = respiratory failure, paralysis, or loss of sensation

what are the functions of the pons? what happens if they are damaged?

• connect brainstem and cerebellum

• gets information from visual areas to control eye and body movement

• controls sleep and wake cycles

• relays information to the cerebellum to control balance and coordinate movement

damage = paralysis to entire body aside from eyes, vertigo, tinnitus

what is the function of the cerebellum? what happens if it is damaged?

• regulates muscle tone, coordination of movements, and balance

• integrates sensory and motor pathways

damage = drunk behaviour

where is the midbrain located?

below the cerebral cortex and above the hindbrain (uppermost part of brainstem)

what does the midbrain control?

controls some reflexes and is involved in control of eye movements and other voluntary movements.

what happens if the midbrain is damaged?

• movement disorders

• difficulty with vision and hearing

• trouble with memory

what is the forebrain and its basic structures?

largest part of cerebellum

contains:

• thalamus

• hypothalamus

• amygdala

• hippocampus

what does the thalamus do? what happens if damaged?

• processes and intergrates sensory information from all senses except smell to higher areas

  • sensory information hub

• regulates sleeping

damage = unconsciousness, coma, sleep disorders, and thalamic aphasia

what is basal ganglia and what happens when damaged?

• wrapped around the thalamus

• contains dopaminergic neurons

damage = parkinsons disease

what are the important structures of the limbic system?

amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus

what role does the limbic system play

important in forming memories, controlling emotions, making decisions, motivation, and learning

what is the hippocampus what happens if it is damaged?

• major role in learning and memory

• resistance in forgetting memories

damage = amnesia

what does the amygdala do? what happens if damaged?

• controls emotions

• evaluates threats in enviroments

  • fear and anxiety

  • fight or flight

  • overactive in people with anxiety disorders

damage = docile behaviour (passive)

stimulation = aggression/fear

what is the hypothalamus? what happens if damaged?

• maintains homeostasis

• links hormones (endocrine system) to brain

• major control centre to regulate eating, drinking, sex, and sleep

what are the 4 parts and functions of the cerebral cortex?

frontal = planning, motor personality, attention, problem solving

parietal = secondary visual, somatosensory

temporal = primary auditory, memory

occipital = primary visual

how is there crossover between the brain and the body?

• sensations from the right side of the body are represented on the left side of the brain

• the is specialized areas for motor and sensation

what is the HPA axis?

the HPA axis is the main stress response system, it secretes gluco… which act on multiple organ systems.

what is broca’s aphasia?

• aphasia in the frontal lobe (usually left)

• speech is diminished and there is a loss of grammatical structure

• located in the brocas area

• CANT FIND WORDS

what is wernickes aphasia?

• aphasia in the temporal lobe (usually left)

  • controls comprehension of words

• when damaged words form a “word salad”

what happens in alzheimers disease?

there is a degeneration or death of ACh neurons in the hippocampus and frontal cortex (memory). begins with progressive memory loss possibly leading to the loss and ability to carry on conversations or respond to an environment.

what is unilateral neglect syndrome?

• damage to the cortex

• usually unaware of any problem

• difficulties attending to stimuli in left perceptual hemifield

• not blind or otherwise insensible to things on their left side

  • can see things if their attention is explicitly drawn to them

symptoms = systematic neglects of contralesional side

ex. one may only read the right side of words or read the right side of a page or eat from the right side of a plate

how could someone have split brain?

intentional severing of the corpus callosum, partially or completely through a surgical procedure

what are the consequences of split brain?

no communication between hemispheres. loss of coordination and more partial seizures. speech problems and trouble comprehending.

how is 5HT (serotonin) implicated in SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)?

Normal infants breathing face-down may not get enough oxygen,

but would respond by turning head or waking. Infants with low

levels of 5HT (intrinsic abnormality) don’t respond.

• stomach sleeping increases risks of SIDS

• serotonin levels 26% lower in SIDS tissue than in control tissue

combination factors:

• low 5HT

• 1st year is critical to breathing development period

• stomach sleeping

what is an excitatory neurotransmitter?

excite the nueron and cause it to “fire off the message” passing the message to the next cell. DEPOLARIZES POSTSYNAPTIC CELL.

what is an inhibitory neurotransmitter?

block or prevent the chemical message from being passed along any further. HYPERPOLARIZE POSTSYNAPTIC CELL.

what is an agonist drug?

a drug that enhances the action of a neurotransmitter by binding and stimulating the receptor. they prevent the reuptake of NT so the synapse is flooded.

what is an antagonist drug?

a drug that impedes the action of a neurotransmitter. the drug binds but does not stimulate instead block the transmitter at the muscle receptor.

what classes of drugs are used to treat depression?

SSRI’s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) -

• increase levels of serotonin by blocking reuptake

• ex. prozac, celexa, ciraplex, zoloft

MAOI’s (monoamine oxidase inhibitors)

• increase levels of serotonin in brain by inhibiting activity of MAO so serotonin cannot be broken down

• ex. nardil, emsam, parnate

what are the 4 types of receptors in the skin?

Thermoreceptor = senses heat or cold

Meussners corpuscle = senses touch

Nociceptor = senses pain

Pacinian corpuscle = senses pressure

how do reflexes work?

• impulses do not go to the brain

1) sensory nerve sends information to the spinal cord

2) interneurons in spinal cord connect sensory neuron to motor neuron

3) motor neuron sends command to muscle

what is the lesion technique?

• chemical, cold, or electricity applied to damaged parts of the brain

• done to see if patients will inhibit basic behaviours

what is TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)?

a series of short magnetic pulses is applied to ones brain to stimulate nerve cells associated with major depression.

what is an EEG (electroencephalogram)?

• electrodes that measure brain activity through magnetic fields

• can identify specific pattern of responses to a given stimulus

what is a PET (positron emission tomography) scan?

• a scan that identifies active areas of the brain by looking at radioactive glucose consumption

what is an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)?

• a magnet aligns atoms in the brain to make a readable signal to see the shape and location of structures

what is an fMRI?

• fMRI scans identify two brain areas that become active when a patient lies

• watches two parts of the brain with associated behaviour

which techniques to study the brain tell us about function?

• EEG

• fMRI

• lesion

• and MEG

what techniques to study the brain tell us about structure

• MRI

• fMRI

• PET

how big is the adult brain?

3lbs (1400g) and is 78% water and 10% fats

how do neurons send messages?

they transmit action potentials from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses which happen through electrical excitation.

what is electrical excitation?

a neuron gets excited and transmits its electrical charge from one end of the axon to another sending it to another neuron.

what are the 5 steps of an action potential?

resting potential = electrical potential difference across the membrane when he cell is in a non-excited state

depolarize (rising phase) = when positively charged sodium ions suddenly rush through open voltage-gated sodium channels

repolarize = change int he membrane potential that returns it to a negative value

hyper polarize = brief dip in the membrane potential below the normal resting voltage

resting = membrane returns to a negative value

what is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

known to respond to dangerous or stressful situations. can cause things like accelerated heart rate, widen bronchial passages, decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine, constrict blood vessels, cause pupil dilation, activate goose bumps, start sweating and raise blood pressure.

what is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

the nerves that relax your body after danger or stressful situations. it slows our heart and breathing rates, lowers blood pressure and promotes digestion promoting a state of relaxation.

what are the major structures in a neuron?

soma, nucleus, dendrite, receptors, axon hillock, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of ranvier, axon terminal, terminal buttons

what are the soma and nucleus?

the soma is the main cell body which is the location of metabolic processing in the cell. The nucleus is the membrane found within the soma containing the nucleolus and chromosomes for coded production of proteins.

what are dendrites and receptors?

dendrites are the extension of the cell body that branch out to communicate with other neurons. receptors are embedded in dendrite to bind with neurotransmitters and help communication

what are the axon and axon hillock?

the axon hillock is the intersection between the soma and the axon; the part of the neuron cell membrane that delivers messages from other neurons and body parts.

what is the myelin sheath and nodes of ranvier?

myelin sheath is a fatty substance wrapped around the axon to protect and increase action potential speeds. the nodes of ranvier allow the signal to travel by letting ions enter and change their charge inside the cell allowing a more efficient signal transmission.

what is the axon terminal and terminal buttons?

the axon terminal is the part of the axon that releases the neurotransmitter to connecting cells. the terminal buttons house vesicles and release the neurotransmitter sending signals to other dendrites.

what is myelin and what happens if it breaks down?

myelin helps nerve impulses to travel, if it breaks down it causes nerve impulses to get slower or even stop causing neurological problems.

why is action potential “all or none”?

the neuron either does not reach the threshold or an action potential is fired.

what is a synapse?

a synapse is where the neurons communicate with each other and is also known as the chemical exchange of neurotransmitters. they are the points of contact between he neurons.

where do synapses form and what do they consist of?

synapses most often form between axons and dendrites. they consist of a presynatic neuron, sypnatic cleft, and postsynaptic neuron.

what does neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) do?

• regulates cardiac contractions and blood pressure

• coordinates muscle contraction and relaxation

• helps with memory and learning

deterioration = alzheimers

• certain anaesthetics block ACh production inhibiting movement

what does neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) do?

• controls pleasure

• movement

• learning

• attention

• emotion

too much = schizophrenia

too little = parkinsons

low = prosperity for addiction (activates pleasure centres)

What does serotonin (5HT) do?

• mood

• hunger

• sleep

• arousal

low = depression, anxiety, increased risk of SIDS

how does the hypothalamus contribute to homosexuality?

the hypothalamus in the forebrain is only a quarter to half the size of the same region in HeM compared to HoM.

what is sensation?

detection and representation of information through sensory receptors. (bottom up). what is sent from our sensory organs

• optic nerves (brightness, colour, forms (simple)

what is perception?

organization and interpretation of that information in the brain (top down). what we see

• object id / recognition

• depth - where is it

• movement - what is it doing

what is the difference between bottom up and top down processing?

bottom up = allow stimulus to shape perception without preconceived ideas

top down = use background knowledge and expectations to interpret what we see

what is gesalt principle “figure and ground”

• need to be able to discriminate the figure from the background

• we can do this automatically but our perception can change depending on stimulus

What are the gestalt habits that allow form perception?

1) proximity - group nearby figures together

2) similarity - group similar objects together

3) continuity - perceive continuous patterns rather than disconnected ones

4) connectedness - when objects are uniform and linked we see them as one unit

5) closure - we fill gaps to create a whole object

what is change blindness?

when a stimulus undergoes a change that is un noticed by the observer. usually happens when ones attention is shifted and a distraction is caused. (door study)