World History Chapter 15 BJU 5th ed

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who proposed that the sun is at the center of the solar system (heliocentric theory), challenging the older earth-centered model used in medieval Europe.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer who explained planetary motion with mathematical laws and concluded that planets move in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles.

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist who used telescopic observations to support heliocentrism, including evidence from Jupiter’s moons and the phases of Venus, and faced opposition from Roman Catholic authorities for defending a sun-centered system.

Isaac Newton

English scientist who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation, providing mathematical explanations for motion on earth and in the heavens, and also advanced the study of light through experiments.

Andreas Vesalius

Anatomist who improved medical knowledge by studying the human body through direct dissection, correcting long-held errors and strengthening anatomy as a scientific discipline.

Paracelsus

Physician who advanced the use of chemicals and minerals as treatments for disease, encouraging observation and practical remedies rather than relying only on ancient medical authorities.

William Harvey

Physician who discovered that the heart functions as a pump and demonstrated the circulation of blood through the body via arteries and veins.

Edward Jenner

Doctor who developed a vaccine method that protected people from smallpox, launching vaccination as a practical medical approach.

Robert Boyle

Scientist who helped shape early modern chemistry through careful experimentation and described the relationship between gas pressure and volume, strengthening experimental science.

Joseph Priestley

Scientist who discovered important gases, including oxygen, and expanded knowledge about the properties of air through laboratory experiments.

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

Chemist remembered as the Father of Modern Chemistry who clarified how oxygen is involved in combustion and helped establish accurate measurement and modern chemical understanding.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher who promoted inductive reasoning by teaching that knowledge should be built from observation and repeated experiments.

René Descartes

French philosopher who promoted deductive reasoning and methodical doubt, emphasizing clear logical steps from basic principles.

John Locke

English philosopher who taught that government is based on the consent of the governed and that people have natural rights that rulers must respect.

Baruch Spinoza

Philosopher associated with pantheism who argued that everything in the universe is part of one substance and used strict reasoning to support his ideas.

Montesquieu

French political thinker who argued that political liberty is protected by separation of powers, dividing government authority to prevent tyranny.

Voltaire

French writer and critic who promoted religious toleration and civil liberties and challenged censorship and injustice through public argument.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who taught that political authority should reflect the general will of the people and criticized social inequality.

Philipp Spener

German church leader who helped begin Pietism by emphasizing personal devotion, Bible study, and practical Christian living instead of mere outward form.

August Francke

German Pietist leader who strengthened education and charitable work by organizing schools and care for orphans and training leaders who spread Pietist influence.

Nikolaus von Zinzendorf

German nobleman who led the Moravians, offered refuge to persecuted believers, and encouraged missionary efforts that spread Christianity to other regions.

John Wesley

Anglican minister who helped found Methodism by organizing disciplined Christian living through small groups and preaching widely to call people to spiritual renewal.

George Whitefield

Evangelist who preached to large crowds in Britain and the American colonies and helped spread revival religion during the Great Awakening.

Jonathan Edwards

American pastor and theologian who became a leading voice in the Great Awakening, preaching and teaching about repentance and a God-centered faith. “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741)

Age of Reason

A term for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

heliocentric theory

The theory that the sun is the center of the universe and that the earth and other planets orbit around it; promoted by Copernicus.

Enlightenment

The eighteenth-century intellectual movement that looked to reason as the solution for all of life’s problems.

rationalism

The belief that reason is the only sure source of knowledge and truth.

inductive method

Reasoning from specific cases to a general conclusion.

deductive method

Reasoning from the general to the specific.

deists

Those who regard reason as the standard of truth and the guide to understanding the universe and the proper way to worship God.

Pietism

A movement that began in the seventeenth century; dedicated to spiritual renewal.

Great Awakening

An eighteenth-century revival in Britain’s American colonies.