AP Psychology 3.6-3.9 Vocabs

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Anxious attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by anxiety and uncertainty in relationships.

Attachment styles

Patterns of attachment behavior that influence how individuals relate to others.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness.

Avoidant attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by avoidance of closeness and emotional connection.

Chronosystem

The system that encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child's development.

Disorganized attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by a lack of a clear attachment behavior.

Ecological systems theory

A theory that emphasizes the importance of multiple environmental systems in human development.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others.

Exosystem

The system that includes the broader social systems that indirectly influence a child's development.

Imaginary audience

The belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent's appearance and behavior as they are.

Insecure attachment

A type of attachment that results in anxiety and avoidance in relationships.

Macrosystem

The overarching system that includes cultural values, customs, and laws.

Mesosystem

The system that encompasses the interactions between different microsystems.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which a child lives and interacts.

Parallel play

A type of play where children play alongside each other without interacting.

Peer influence

The impact that peers have on an individual's attitudes and behaviors.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness.

Personal fable

The belief that one's experiences and feelings are unique and not understood by others.

Pretend play

A form of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios.

Secure attachment

A type of attachment characterized by trust and a strong emotional bond.

Separation anxiety

The distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregivers.

Social clock

The societal expectations for the timing of life events.

Temperament

The innate characteristics that influence an individual's behavior and emotional responses.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events occurring before the age of 18 that can have lasting effects on health and behavior.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

A stage in psychosocial development where children learn to assert their independence.

Emerging adulthood

A developmental stage from late teens to mid-20s characterized by exploration and self-discovery.

Ethnic identity

A person's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group.

Familial identity

The sense of belonging and connection to one's family.

Gender identity

A personal conception of oneself as male, female, a blend of both, or neither.

Generativity vs. stagnation

A stage in psychosocial development focused on contributing to society and helping the next generation.

Identity

The qualities, beliefs, personality, looks, and expressions that make a person or group.

Identity vs. role confusion

A stage in psychosocial development where individuals explore different roles and integrate them into a cohesive identity.

Identity achievement status

The status of having explored options and made commitments to an identity.

Identity diffusion

A status where an individual has not explored or committed to any identity.

Identity foreclosure

A status where an individual has made commitments without exploring options.

Identity moratorium

A status where an individual is actively exploring identities but has not yet made commitments.

Identity status model

A framework for understanding the development of identity in individuals.

Industry vs. inferiority

A stage in psychosocial development focused on mastering skills and feeling competent.

Initiative vs. guilt

A stage in psychosocial development where children assert control and power over their environment.

Integrity vs. despair

A stage in psychosocial development where individuals reflect on their life and either feel fulfillment or regret.

Intimacy vs. isolation

A stage in psychosocial development focused on forming intimate relationships.

Occupational identity

The sense of self derived from one's career or profession.

Possible selves

The various identities that an individual can envision for themselves in the future.

Racial identity

A person's sense of belonging to a particular racial group.

Religious identity

A person's sense of belonging to a particular religion or spiritual belief system.

Sexual orientation

An individual's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

Stage theory of psychosocial development

A theory that outlines the development of personality through a series of stages.

Trust vs. mistrust

A stage in psychosocial development focused on developing trust in caregivers and the environment.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in classical conditioning where a response is established.

Association

The process of linking two stimuli or a stimulus and a response.

Associative learning

A learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus.

Behavioral perspective

An approach to psychology that emphasizes observable behaviors and the responses to environmental stimuli.

Biological preparedness

The innate tendency to learn certain associations more easily than others.

Classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Counterconditioning

A behavioral therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

One-trial learning

Learning that occurs after a single experience.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period following extinction.

Stimulus discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Taste aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with illness.

Unconditioned response (UR)

The natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Continuous reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement where every correct response is reinforced.

Fixed interval

A schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.

Fixed ratio

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Instinctive drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with the conditioned response.

Law of Effect

The principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Learned helplessness

A condition in which a person feels unable to control their environment due to repeated failures.

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Operant conditioning

A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

Partial reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement where only some responses are reinforced.

Positive reinforcement

The addition of a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Primary reinforcers

Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing, such as food or water.

Punishment

An aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

The addition of an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative punishment

The removal of a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Reinforcement discrimination

The ability to differentiate between situations in which reinforcement is available and those in which it is not.

Reinforcement generalization

The tendency for a response to be reinforced in similar situations.

Reinforcement schedules

The rules that determine how and when reinforcement is delivered.

Scalloped graph

A graphical representation of a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, showing a scalloped pattern.

Secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Shaping

The process of reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.

Superstitious behavior

Behavior that is reinforced by a coincidental association with a positive outcome.

Variable interval

A schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

Variable ratio

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Cognitive maps

Mental representations of physical locations.

Insight learning

A form of problem-solving where the solution suddenly comes to mind.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Social learning theory

The theory that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of another person's behavior.