Issues and Debates 🧠

Gender Bias

the differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than a real difference

Alpha Bias

a tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting that there are real differences between the two- theories typically devalue one gender in comparison to the other

Alpha Bias example

freud saw femininity as an expression of failed masculinity and females are psychologically defined by the fact that they realise they’re not male- penis envy

also argues that female vanity is a defence mechanism women use to make up for their sexual inferiority by focusing people’s attention on their physical charms

Beta bias

refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences, often assuming that findings from males apply equally to females

Beta Bias example

research into fight or flight response has often been carried out with male animals- it was assumed to not be a problem as response would be the same for both sexes and variation in hormone levels of females would make it more difficult

however taylor et al. found that females adopt a tend and befriend response as they’re more likely to protect their offspring by forming alliances with other women

androcentrism

theories and research that is centered around or focused on males

• historically most studies are done on men

• as a result theories and findings represent a male oriented view of the world, where normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard so anything deviating from this is likely to be judged as abnormal or inferior

androcentrism example

the diagnostic criteria for depression: much of the early research on depression was conducted with predominantly male participants. As a result, the symptoms and cognitive features that researchers focused on—such as specific patterns of negative thinking and behavioral withdrawal—were based on how depression manifested in men. This male-centric framework overlooked or undervalued symptom expressions more common among women, such as emotional symptoms

Gynocentrism

theories and research that is centered or focused on females, often excluding males

example of gynocentrism

moscovici used a sample of 172 female participants for his study on how consistent minorities can influence a majority- this all female sample means results are expected to be the same for men

AO3- implications of gender bias

• gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practice

• it may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities both in the workplace and society e.g. seen as having more emotional issues

• therefore findings may have lasting and damaging concequences for the daily lives of real women

AO3- sexism in psychological research

• lack of women at senior level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked

• lab experiments may have female ppts. but male lead researchers

• creates an inequitable relationship with male researchers where women could be labelled, not treated as individuals, creating negative stereotypes

• therefore it can be argued that psychology is institutionally sexist, creating an inevitable bias in theory and published research

AO3 essentialism

• many gender differences historically reported by psychologists are based on the essentialist perspective that gender differences are fixed in nature and enduring

• valerie walkerdine points to ‘scientific’ research from the 30’s that reported attending uni would shrivel a womans ovaries

• these can often be politically motivated ‘facts’ that create double standards, rather than genuine differences

• therefore must be mindful of the politcal/cultural environment they’re working in and the fact that it may be a cause of bias in research conclusions

Culture bias

the tendency to ignore cultural differences and judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions

Ethnocentrism

• judging other cultures by standards of ones own culture- may lead to discrimination of other cultures

Ethnocentrism example

Ainsworth’s strange situation- also cultural relativism etic

• reflected only the norms and values of american culture

• ainsworth identified the key variable of attachment type as the child’s experience of anxiety upon separation

• suggested that ideal or secure attachment was characterised by the infant showing moderate distress when left alone

• led to misinterpretation of child rearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from american norm- german mothers seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging the independance of their children

Overcoming ethnocentrism- cultural relativism

• there is no global right or wrong you must consider the behaviour of an individual from within their own culture/context

berry suggested that psychologists should be mindful of cultural relativism in their research by using an emic approach- understanding a culture in its own terms, preconceived ideas to be put aside

etic- descriptions by an observer from outside a culture from their own point of view, uses preconceived ideas to undrestand behaviour and apply it universally

concequences of culture bias

emic approach leads to alpha bias- exaggerating differences between culture, assuming no universality

etic approach leads to beta bias- minimising differences between culture by assuming universality

AO3- the idea of culture bias is out of date

• in the past psychologists have referenced culture within the context of individualist-collectivist

• takano and osaka found that 14/15 studies comparing the usa and japan found no evidence of traditional distinction tra individualism and collectivism

• suggests that culture bias in research is less of an issue than it once was- therefore there may be less need to take culturally relativist approaches to research than previously thought

• however, the broad individualist-collectivist dimension is a gross simplification

AO3- some behaviours are universal (-)

• should be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative, some behaviours appear to be universal

• critiques of ainsworth should’nt ignore the fact that some features of human attachment like imitation are universal

• this suggests a full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of universal behaviour and behaviour specific to culture

• therefore only a culturally relativist approach to avoid culture bias is not appropriate

AO3- addressing institutional issues in psych (+)

• conducting cross-cultural research may challenge typically western ways of thinking- may promote a greater understanding of individual differences and cultural relativism in the future

• suggests cross cultural conclusions may be less institutionally racist than earlier research and a more accurate method

• therefore cross cultural research can also lead to greater validity in theories explaining human behaviour

Culture Bias Full AO1 paragraph

• Cultural bias threatens the universality of findings in psychology.​

• Cultural bias refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences.​

• An example of research that shows cultural bias is Asch’s study on conformity because…​

• Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.​

• An example of research that shows ethnocentrism is Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. This is an example of an imposed etic.​

• Berry suggested that psychologists should be mindful of cultural relativism in their research (the idea that norms and values can only be understood within specific contexts) by using an emic approach.

Discuss ethical implications of research studies and theory AO1

• Ethical implications are the impact that psychological research might have in terms of the rights and dignity of participants.​

• Ethical guidelines were developed to help protect those involved in research.​

• Socially sensitive research involves studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research orthe groups the participants represent in society.​

• For example, it may be socially sensitive to suggest that there is a link between IQ and race. ​

• Sieber and Stabley (1988) outlined four aspects of the research process that require ethical consideration: research questions, treatment of participants, institutional context, interpretation of findings.​

• Researchers should be mindful of implications (wider effects of giving scientific credibility to prejudice). ​

• Researchers should also be mindful of the validity of socially sensitive research (findings which were presented as value-free/ neutral/unbiased in the past have turned out to be suspect).

AO3- social sensitivity reduces prejudice

• strength of socially sensitive research is that it can promote greater sensitivity and understanding of underrepresented groups

• For example, research into expressed emotion (EE) in families of individuals with schizophrenia has highlighted how high levels of criticism, hostility, or emotional over-involvement can increase the likelihood of relapse. This has led to the development of interventions like family therapy, which not only supports individuals with schizophrenia but also educates families about how to create a more supportive environment.

• reduces prejudice and stigma surrounding schizophrenia as it fosters greater empathy by emphasizing the role of external factors in mental health

AO3 (+) development of ethical committee

• has led to the establishment of ethical guidelines through the development of ethical committees.

• e.g. British Psychological Society (BPS) has created ethical guidelines to ensure that research involving socially sensitive topics, such as mental health or minority groups, adheres to strict standards. These guidelines promote the well-being of participants by addressing key principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm.

• This means that modern research must undergo rigorous ethical review by committees, where the potential costs to participants and society are carefully weighed against the potential benefits of the findings. As a result, research is more ethically responsible, improving trust between researchers and the public.

AO3- socially sensitive research can lead to social control

P - weakness of socially sensitive research is that it can lead to social control​

E- In America in the 1930s, many states legalised the compulsory sterilisation of citizens that were ‘feeble-minded’.​

E -This was based on research including alcoholics and the mentally ill.

Free Will

the notion that humans can make choices and are self determining. Their behaviour is not determined by internal or external forces like biology or conditioning

hard vs soft determinism

soft- in some cases morally responsible, in others our actions have been causally determined, human behaviour has a cause but is also determined by our conscious mental control over how we behave

hard- NOT morally responsible, free will not possible, all human behaviour has a cause which we should be able to identify, compatible with the aims of science- to uncover causal laws that govern thought and action

determinism vs free will of approaches

behaviourist- hard determinism

psychodynamic- hard determinism

biological- hard determinism

SLT- soft determinism (up to individual to decide when to imitate behaviours)

Cognitive- soft determinism (we choose what we think about + how we behave but only within existing cognitive thought patterns)

biological determinism

• idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors like genes neurochemistry and brain structure

• e.g. relationships- evolutionary explanation

• e.g. schizophrenia MAOA-L gene

environmental determinism

• idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents etc.

• e.g. phobias- learnt through classical conditioning and maintained via operant

• e.g. SLT- observation and imitation of aggression

psychic determinism

• idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives, the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences

• e.g. oedipus complex- unconscious desire of mother leads to fear of father

• e.g. unconscious defence mechanisms like repression of undesirable/threatening thoughts

scientific emphasis on causal explanations

• in science everything has a cause

• when all other variables are controlled, scientists can conclude cause and effect

• allows scientists to predict and control events in the future

• directly relates to the hard determinist position as behaviour is determined by some internal/external cause

AO3- hard determinism not useful in society

• not consistent with the way our legal system operated

• in court of law, offenders are held morally accountable and only in extreme circumstances such as mental illness do juries act with greater leniency

• so although it may be a useful way to research some behaviours, it does not apply to how behaviour is viewed in legal system or wider society

AO3- determinism consistent with aims of science

• determinist view of schizophrenia and other mental disorders has led to the development of successful treatments for those e.g. if schizophrenia is biologically determined, treatments should target genes and neurotransmitters which have been proven effective

AO3- free will is impossible to test

• as psychology is a science, the idea that something without a physical presence can affect behaviour is at odds with the discipline, approaches such as humanistic lack credible studies and evidence to support theories

Holism

• behaviour can only be explained by considering the whole person, including internal/external influences

• humanistic approach- rogers’ client centered therapy - focuses on entire person including thoughts, feelings and social context rather than isolating biological or cognitive factors

Reductionsim

• involves explaining complex behaviour in a simple way in terms of basic units or smaller, simpler aspects of complex behaviour

Biological reductionism

• behaviour should be explained by being reduced to the physical level- the action of genes, evolution, neurotransmitters, hormones etc.

• e.g. biological explanations of aggression come from the link tra high levels of test. and aggressive behaviour and the isolation of the MAOA warrior gene

environmental reductionsim

• all behaviour can be explained through stimulus-response links that are measurable in lab conditions

• behaviour is a result of interaction with the environment

• e.g. learning theory of attachment states that the food gives infant pleasure and as mother provides it, the two bond

levels of explanation

• different ways of researching any given behaviour

• highest levels- socio-cultural

• middle levels- psychological

• lower levels- biological-physiological and biological-neurochemical

aggression example

socio-cultural= media influences

psychological= SLT

biological-physiological= limbic system

biological-neurochemical= MOAO-L

biological reductionism AO3

(+) led to development of successful treatments for mental illness such as antipsychotics to treat SZ, good bc drug treatments have reduced rates of institutionalisation

(-) loss of validity in the explanation, no analysis of social context, culture, emotion and living situation of the patient with SZ, it may be the expressed emotion of the environment they live in thats triggering symptoms, so symptoms may be addressed rather than root causes

Environmental Reductionism AO3

(+) easy to test the stimulus-response link, e.g. has explained how phobias are maintained

(-) however environmentally reductionist approach was developed from pavlov and skinner’s non-human approach using animals with a limited capacity for free will

Holism AO3

(+) certain behaviours can only be explained at the holistic level e.g. zimbardo’s research its important to consider social context as behaviour wouldn’t be explained through reductionist means- more valid expl.

(-) doesn’t lend itself to rigorous scientific testing- e.g. humanistic app. lacks empirical evidence and makes it difficult to establish the most influential cause of behaviour

reductionism AO3

• A strength of reductionism is that it enables psychology to use the scientific method. In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts. This means that specific causes of behaviour can be identified and appropriate treatments developed (for example, biological reductionism has led to the development of drug treatments).​

• However, a weakness of reductionism is that it can to a loss of validity. Biologically reductionist explanations include no analysis of social context, culture, emotion and motivation. It is possible that in treatment, the symptoms are addressed and not the root cause of disorder (as the complex interaction of many factors are ignored).

Nativism (nature)

• introduced by descartes who suggested that the human soul was born with an understanding of certain key concepts, predispositions and pre-programmed behaviour

e.g. evolutionary explanation for partner preferences

empiricism (nurture)

suggests we are born without any innate mechanisms, john locke argued tabula rasa and we learn from experiences within environment

e.g. Bandura: Children imitated aggressive adult models, but they were not displaying this behaviour before - suggests it is learnt from the environment.

Heredity

process by which traits are passed on from parents to offspring, usually refering to genetic inheritance. the genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

environment

any influence on human behaviour that isn’t genetic, may include cultural and historical influences at a societal level

interactionist approach

the view that processes of nature and nurture work together to influence behaviour, rather than in opposition. researchers study how nature and nurture interact and influence each other

e.g. maguire et al. taxi drivers posterior hippocampal volume

diathesis-stress model

this is one conceptualisation of the interactionist approach that allows us to explain behaviours such as mental illness using the model of biological/genetic vulnerability interacting with an environmental influence to produce a behvaviour

AO3 nature nurture strengths

P - A strength of the nature side of the debate (nativist approach) is that is has research support​

​E - is the evidence (theory/study) clearly linked to innate factors?​

E - have they explained what effect these biological factors had on behaviour and why that supports nature ?​

‘Furthermore…’ does the additional evidence & explanation support their argument

P - A strength of the nurture side of the debate (empiricist approach) is that is has research support​

​E - is the evidence (theory/study) clearly linked to environmental factors?​

​E - have they explained what effect these environmental factors had on behaviour and why that supports nurture​

​‘Furthermore…’ does the additional evidence & explanation support their argument

AO3 nature nurture weaknesses

• nature can lead to biological determinsm- e.g. shockley linking race, genetics and intelligence to suggest that african americans scored lower on IQ tests due to genetic facators - supports racist ideas of eugenics and doesn’t recogniste cultural bias in iq testing

• extreme nurture position can be misused by those in power to manipulate behaviour through environment