Intro to Psych Final 🥳

Thinking (Cognition)

mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others.

Mental Images

mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picturesque quality.

Concepts

ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.

Prototype

an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept.

Problem Solving

process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

Decision Making

process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives.

Trail and Error (Mechanical Solution)

problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.

Algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.

Heuristic

an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a "rule of thumb".

Representativeness Heuristic

assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.

Availability Heuristic

estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.

Functional Fixedness

a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions.

Mental Set

the tendency of people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.

Confirmation Bias

the tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.

Creativity

the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

Convergent Thinking

type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.

Divergent Thinking

type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point.

Intelligence

the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.

G Factor

the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence.

S Factor

the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Intelligence Quotient

a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one's mental age by one's chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100.

Reliabilty

the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people.

Validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure.

Deviation IQ Scores

a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15.

Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Development Disorder)

condition in which a person's behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age; may also be referred to as developmentally delayed.

Gifted

the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above.

Emotional Intelligence

the awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as the ability to understand emotions of others.

Heritability

degree to which the changes in some trait within a population can be considered to be due to genetic influences; the extent to which individual genetic differences affect individual differences in observed behavior; in IQ, proportion of change in IQ within a population that is caused by hereditary factors.

Stereotype Threat

condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group.

Human Development

the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death.

Longitudinal Design

research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.

Cross-Sectional Design

research design in which several different participant age groups are studied at one particular point in time.

Cross-Sequential Design

research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally.

Cohort Effect

the impact on development occurring when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience.

Nature

the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Nurture

the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Genetics

the science of inherited traits.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism.

Gene

section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements.

Dominant

referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait.

Recessive

referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene.

Ovum

the female sex cell, or egg.

Sperm

the male sex cell.

Fertilization

the union of the ovum and sperm.

Zygote

cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm.

Monozygotic Twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo.

Dizygotic Twins

often called fraternal twins, occurring when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

Bioethics

the study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine.

Germinal Period

first 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus an begins to implant in the lining.

Embryo

name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization.

Embryonic Period

the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

Critical Periods

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

Teratogen

any factor that can cause a birth defect.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

the physical and mental defects caused by consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

Fetal Period

the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth of the baby.

Cognitive Development

the development of thinking, problem-solving, and memory.

Schemes

mental concepts formed through experiences with objects and events.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment.

Object Permanence

the knowledge than an object exists even when it is not in sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world.

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes.

Centration

in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Conservation

in Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature.

Irreversibility

in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.

Concrete Operations Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking.

Formal Operations Stage

Piaget's last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking.

Scaffolding

process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher.

Temperament

the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as "easy", "difficult", and "slow to warm up"; the enduring characteristics with which each person is born.

Attachment

the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver.

Self-Concept

the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important and significant people in one's life.

Gender

the psychological aspects of being male of female. (BS... bad science)

Gender Roles

the culture's expectations for male or female behavior, including attitudes, actions, and personality traits associated with being male or female in that culture.

Gender Identity

the individual's sense of being male or female.

Gender Schema Theory

theory of gender identity acquisition in which a child develops a mental pattern, or schema, for being male or female and then organizes observed and learned behavior around that schema.

Androgyny

characteristic of possessing the most positive personality characteristics of males and females regardless of actual sex.

Adolescence

the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20's, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.

Puberty

the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak.

Personal Fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

Imaginary Audience

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

Identity Versus Role Confusion

stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self.

Emerging Adulthood

a time from late adolescence though the 20's referring to those in who are childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough money to be independent, mainly found in developed countries.

Menopause

the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman's reproductive capability.

Andropause

gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-aged males.

Intimacy

an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self.

Generativity

providing guidance to one's children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work.

Authoritarian Parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.

Permissive Parenting

style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior.

Permissive Neglectful Parenting

permissive parenting in which parent is uninvolved with child or child's behavior.

Permissive Indulgent Parenting

permissive parenting in which parent is so involved that children are allowed ti behave without set limits.

Authoritative Parenting

style of parenting in which parent combines warmth and affection with firm limits on a child's behavior.

Ego Integrity

sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life, possessing the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego.

Motivation

the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.

Extrinsic Motivation

type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.

Intrinsic Motivation

type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.

Instincts

the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.

Need

a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism.

Drive

a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension.

Drive-Reduction Theory

approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.