Psych of Women Exam 2

Sex difference in activity in infancy

d = .29 to .64

Sex difference in inhibitory control in infancy

d = -.41 ♀

Sex difference in perceptual sensitivity in infancy

d = -.38 ♀

Sex difference in negative affect in infancy

‐.06 ♀

Sex difference in attention in infancy

focusing d = -.15; purposeful shifting d = -.31

At what age do children generally recognize the difference between male and female voices? Faces?

as early as 3-4 months

What is the gender segregation effect?

children tend to group themselves according to sex, or into boys' groups and girls' groups. This is one of the most powerful and pervasive social phenomena to exist in early childhood

How do mother's expectations of their baby's ability to crawl up an incline differ by sex?

mothers of boys thought that boys would make it farther. on average, mothers produced estimates 5° steeper for boys' crawling ability than for girls' ability and 13° steeper for boys' crawling attempts than for girls' attempts. A difference of 13° represents more than 33% of the range in infants' attempts.

Describe the Baby X study, and what it informs us about people's expectations of babies, based on the baby's sex (of if sex is not disclosed)?

The present study investigated adult behavior while interacting with a three month-old infant. under conditions in which the child was introduced as a boy,as a girl, or with no gender information given. Gender labels did not elicit simple effects, but rather interacted significantly with the sex of the subject on both toy usage and physical contact measures. made assumptions about baby's sex and host of stereotypes come out of that schema.

gender constancy

realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a person's appearance or behavior

gender identity

one's sense of being male or female

gender stability

awareness that gender remains the same over time

appearance rigidity

Rigid adherence to gender norms in appearance, such as wearing highly masculine or feminine clothing and avoiding clothes typical of another gender

gender consistency

during the late preschool and early school years, children understand that sex is biologically based and remains the same even if a person dresses in "cross-gender" clothes or engages in nontraditional activities

gender dysphoria

the condition of feeling one's emotional and psychological identity as male or female to be opposite to one's biological sex.

Discuss trans-affirmative practice

gender affirming care that is respectful and
supportive of experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming individuals
ex: name, pronoun use, clothing

At what age do children develop gender identity?

18 to 24 months

At what age do children develop gender constancy?recogni

60 to 72 months

At what age do children recognize the sex of other children?

18 to 24 months

Define gender essentialist and how this describes preschoolers.

men and women act differently and have different options in life because of intrinsic or essential differences between the sexes. preschool children tended to evaluate the same ambiguous behaviors more harshly when the perpetrator was a boy as compared to a girl

Describe Tobin et al.'s (2010) gender self-socialization model.

a model of the structure and the dynamics of gender cognition in childhood. The model incorporates 3 hypotheses featured in different contemporary theories of childhood gender cognition. The model distinguishes three constructs: gender identity, gender stereotypes, and attribute self-perceptions. The model specifies 3 causal processes among the constructs: Gender identity and stereo-types interacts with attribute self-perceptions; gender identity and attribute self-perceptions interacts with gender stereotypes; and gender stereotypes and attribute self-perceptions interacts with identity.

Define socialization.

the process by which society conveys to the individual
its expectations for his or her behavior, values, and beliefs

Describe channeling (also called shaping), and how parents' channeling socializes a child (often into gender stereotypical roles).

Gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response.
Talk differently with daughters vs. sons, though much of gender teaching in parents' talk is subtle, implicit
Play differently with daughters vs. sons
Have different expectations for boys and girls

Discuss how parents differentially treat boys and girls, through both language and behaviors.

parents use more physical punishment with boys than with girls. they also found that mothers used more supportive speech with daughters than with sons

Discuss how parental modeling affects a child's gender development.

A child's earliest exposure to what it means to be male or female comes from parents. From the time their children are babies, parents treat sons and daughters differently, dressing infants in gender-specific colors, giving gender-differentiated toys, and expecting different behavior from boys and girls.

Discuss how teacher behaviors continue to socialize children outside the home (attention and gender salience in the classroom).

teachers pay more attention to boys
teachers praise girls for decorous conduct and boys for good academic performance
salience condition showed significantly increased gender stereotypes, less positive ratings of other-sex peers, and decreased play with other-sex peers.

Identify ways that the media influences children's gender development.

toy commercials: usually gender-specific
picture books: feminine traits in female characters
video games: patterns of extreme gender stereotyping, including violence against women; played more by boys

Understand the three stages of gender constancy development and what occurs in each stage.

1. Gender identity (~18 to 24 months)
2. Gender stability (~36 to 48 months)
-appearance rigidity
-label boys and girls (~36 months)
-associate certain attributions with either male or female
-associate occupations with gender
3. Gender consistency (~60 to72 months)
*Gender self-socialization after gender constancy develops

Be able to discuss implicit and explicit gender identity preferences in transgender and cisgender children.

Transgender children's toy and playmate preferences match gender identity NOT birth sex when compared with CIS-gender peers and siblings (both explicit and implicit measures)

Describe gender intensification in early adolescence.

beginning in adolescence, girls and boys experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles.

Discuss Erikson's (1950) adolescence developmental stage identity vs. role confusion, with emphasis on sex differences he proposed in identity development. What is the contemporary response to this androcentric theory?

During this stage adolescents need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Focus on males (androcentric theory); girls in a state of
"identity suspension"

What are differences between male and female same-sex friendships, and what tends to happen with friendship composition during adolescence?

Girls' friendships: more intimate, more self-disclosure and emotional support, girls tend to have a few very close friends
Boys' friendships: less intimate, shared group activities

Describe both male and female development of secondary sex characteristics during adolescence, and how this may differentially impact psychology of the individual (particular emphasis on budding breast and menarche).

female: menarche, hormones, breast development, pubic hair
male: facial hair, deepening voice

What is the age difference in the onset of the male and female growth spurt, and how might this affect the psychology of girls? Boys?

Different growth spurts (♀ age 9; ♂ age 11) (prior to puberty)*
Girls finish puberty about two years before boys.
Girls gain more fatty tissue than boys; boys gain more muscle tissue than girls

Discuss effects of pubertal timing.

Overall, there was little evidence of persistent, long-term effects of early pubertal timing, with the exception of a small group of girls at greater risk for depression in young adulthood. Attenuated effects of this kind might suggest either recovery by early maturers or "catch-up" by on-time/late maturers.

Describe how the experience of puberty may differ for transgender youth and trans-affirmative care during this period.

Pubertal changes don't align with gender identity
Transaffirmative practice
-Pubertal suppression - medical suppression of
development of gender inconsistent secondary sex
characteristics
-Gender affirming hormone treatment - hormones
promote development of gender-consistent secondary
sex characteristics
--Not recommended before age 16
--Less reversible consequences on reproductive system

Define co-rumination and discuss sex differences and psychological repercussions.

"fat talk"

What is sexualization (also sometimes called sexual objectification) and what effects does this have on the adolescent girl?

sexually objectifying a person
girls learn to view their bodies as if they were outside observers
sexual harassment by peers
low self-esteem

Describe objectified body consciousness, and the sex difference in the experience.

girls learn to view their bodies as if they were outside observers

Discuss the trajectory of girl's self-esteem during adolescence, and some of the possible causes.

receive sexual harassment from peers, and their self esteem plunges in adolescence.

At what average age do American women marry today, and what percent of women are married by age 40?

average age of first marriage is ~27

Discuss advantages/disadvantages of marriage, and psychological well-being of women who never marry.

Men have better psychological and health outcomes. Recent stats, Men and women report better outcomes than single counterparts.
Advantages of being single
-Freedom
-Sense of self-sufficiency and competence
♀ Women who are satisfied with long-term single status
-Satisfying employment that provides economic
independence
-Connections to next generation
-Strong social support network

Know the outcome of the 2015 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges.

A case in which the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment requires states to license and recognize same-sex marriage

What is the U.S. divorce rate?

40-50% of all marriages end in divorce

Discuss economic effects of divorce on women.

Divorced women and their children are new underclass
Divorced men experience a 42% increase in standard of living, whereas women experience a 35-73% decrease

What percent of divorced women remarry?

70-75% of divorced women remarry

What conclusions were drawn in Jessie Bernard's (1972) His and Hers Marriage?

Marriage is better for men than for women, but good for both
Quality of marriage is most important

Discuss medicalization of childbirth, and the alternative methods available today.

Shaving, Enemas, Anesthesia, Episiotomies Cesarean Section

Discuss maternity blues, possible causes, and the estimated number of mothers that experience this.

characterized by crying, anxiety, andirritability, typically begins three to four days after childbirth and lasts about two to four days. 75%

Discuss postpartum depression, possible causes, and the estimated number of mothers that experience this. What is the major difference between postpartum depression and maternity blues?

severe feelings of depression that last for weeks or months after delivery
Associated with youth, poverty, less education, first time motherhood, history of mental health problems
Associated with having idealized cultural constructions of "perfect mother" that do not match experience
Possibly associated with drastic drops in estrogen and progesterone levels after birth. 1 in 8 females

What is postpartum psychosis and its frequency?

an overt presentation of bipolar disorder that is timed to coincide with tremendous hormonal shifts after delivery. 1 to 2 out of every 1,000 deliveries, or approximately .1 -.2% of births

Define infertility, discuss causes of infertility, and describe approaches for infertile individuals who want children.

Inability to conceive a child after a year of trying
Blockage of fallopian tube
Failure of ovaries to produce eggs
Uterine fibroids
Endometriosis
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Lifestyle factors

What is the motherhood mandate?

cultural belief that all women should have children & be mothers

What is the motherhood war?

pitting of working moms against stay-at-home moms

What is intensive mothering?

expectation that women should not only be mothers, but exceptional mothers

Discuss voluntary childlessness and the psychological well-being of women who do not wish to become mothers.

Higher in autonomy and achievement orientation

Describe cultural differences in marriage (arranged marriages) and child-bearing (China's two-child policy, recently revised from one-child policy) discussed in class.

India, Pakistan, Egypt, China, Japan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bengladesh
Compatibility - NOT LUST - grows into love
Low divorce rate
Chinas 2 Child policy - abortion of female fetuses, invisible children

What is the empty nest syndrome?

depression that middle aged people supposedly feel when their children are grown and have left home, leaving an empty
nest

What does the extant literature inform us about the empty nest syndrome?

It's essentially a myth. It results in:
Increased marital equity
Increase marital quality
Although some women temporarily experience
loneliness or a sense of loss, most experience increased well-being

What does the extant literature inform us about general psychological well-being in midlife?

70% of 60-65 year old women describe current lives as better than when they were younger

Describe the risks of childbirth after 40.

Higher incidence of multiples
More miscarriage
More preterm, low-birth-weight, stillborn babies
Higher levels of complication during pregnancy
More chromosomal abnormalities
More likely to have cesarean sections

Define menopause, and describe the physical and psychological effects of menopause on women.

ceasing of menstruation;
Body Worries,
Investment in appearance, body dissatisfaction, and media exposure predict actual consideration of cosmetic surgery

Define the grandmother effect.

Older women enhance their own fitness by taking care of their grandchildren.

What is the double standard of aging?

cultural norms by which men's status increases with age but women's decreases

Describe the sex difference in chronic illness.

Although women live longer than men, they have more chronic illnesses

What is the life expectancy for females? For men?

♂ 76.1 years; ♀ 81.1 years

Describe changes in the female/male ratio across old age, and the effects this has on women.

60-69 years → 110 women: 100 men
80-89 years → 162 women: 100 men
90 + years → 259 women: 100 men
♀Many elderly women live alone

Discuss sex differences in widowhood.

Women are more likely to be widowed than men are
Opportunities for remarriage are limited because of lopsided gender ratio
In 1st year following spouse's death, widows show increased depression, but then level off and rebound
Financial strain common among widows
Death of spouse is harder on men than it is on women in terms of depression, illness, and death

Sex difference in general intelligence

NO DIFFERENCES

Sex difference in verbal ability

‐.11 ♀

Sex difference in spatial ability (mental rotation, special perception, special visualization)

Visualization .13 ♂
Perception .44 ♂
Rotation .57 ♂

Sex difference in mathematical ability

0.0065 to 0.05 ♂

Sex difference in physical performance/ athletics

Height 2.60 ♂
50‐yard dash .63 ♂
Throwing 1.98 ♂

Describe sex differences in school achievement, and the intersection of gender and identity.

-Girls consistently get better grades than boys, d = -.23
-Even in areas where boys score higher in ability tests
-ACROSS ALL ETHNICITIES
- Girls take advanced math courses in high school to the same extent as boys
-Girls still avoid some science courses

Identify sex differences in SAT's (and effect sizes!) and possible explanations for differences offered in the text.

Math .34 ♂
Critical Reading .05 ♂

What is the female underprediction effect and how can this harm young women?

The female underprediction effect is a phenomenon where women tend to perform better than one might predict from their test scores. The consequences of the underprediction effect are that women still wont get the jobs they apply for, and the credibility that they deserve.

Describe sex differences in success attributions.

Attributions: process by which people make judgements about the cause of events
Internal attributions (personality factor) for ♂ achievement
External attributions (situational factors) for ♀ achievement

Describe generally the components of Eccles expectancy-value model of achievement and discuss specifically what the model assesses.

Achievement behavior is a product of the person's
expectations and values

What is the female motive to avoid success (Horner, 1969)? How was it measured, and are the findings considered valid/reliable today? Why or why not?

Horner postulates that many women experience anxiety in competitive situations and learn to fear success because of its incongruence with the traditional female role. 700 male and females college students wrote stories to randomly assigned cues containing success of male and female medical students

Approximately what percentage of women work outside the home?

47%

Describe common stereotypes about women and work.

women are working only for a little extra money a woman who is really ambitious and qualified can get ahead... anyway leaders are men

Define Sex Discrimination

unequal treatment of someone based on that person's sex

Define Patronizing behavior

supervisors give subordinates considerable praise while withholding valued resources

Define Token

member of a group that is less than 15% of the larger
♀tokens are highly visible and on display, so may feel
a great deal of performance pressure or be socially isolated

Define sexual harassment.

behavior characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or physical advances in a workplace or other professional or social situation.

What is the meaning of the glass ceiling? How does the more contemporary term labyrinth (Eagly & Carli, 2007) more aptly describe the current state of affairs?

Refers to "invisible" barriers to promotion of women and ethnic minorities into upper management and executive levels.Believe a labyrinth is a better metaphor than a glass ceiling. Dictatorial vs. transformational leadership

Be familiar with the topic presented in the video The Invisible War, and the current state of affairs on the controversial topic of abuse in the military.

exposes the systemic cover-up of military sex crimes, chronicling the women's struggles to rebuild their lives and fight for justice. It also features hard-hitting interviews with high-ranking military officials and members of Congress that reveal the perfect storm of conditions that exist for rape in the military. a female soldier in combat zones is more likely to be raped by a fellow soldier than killed by enemy fire.

Describe how classified "want" ads display modern sexism.

up until the 80's there were separate ads for men and women; behind gendered wording that leads to a psychological sense of belonging (or not) to the occupation advertising for help (on a level below consciousness)

Discuss discrimination in work product (e.g., Goldberg, 1968 and Swim et al., 1989).

Women's work judged inferior

What is the current pay gap, and potential reasons for the inequity?

implicit associations ("male"and "rich")
occupational segregation; devaluation
wage discrimination
salary negotiations d=.2
gender differences in entitlement 900,000

Describe the motherhood penalty, and factors that increase and decrease the penalty.

in the workplace, working mothers encounter systematic disadvantages in pay, perceived competence, and benefits relative to childless women.

Define occupational segregation, give examples, and explain why/how this perpetuates gender stereotypes and inequality.

when an occupation or a certain part of it tends to be dominated by individuals of a particular gender or race or other personal characteristic. Stereotyping restricts thinking about work options Major contributor to the gendered wage gap

Describe progress made toward educational equality in the areas of dentistry, medicine, and law. Why isn't this directly related to equal numbers of males and females in the work force?

?

Describe the notion of comparable worth, and reasons why this is difficult to implement.

principle that people should be paid equally for work that is comparable in responsibility, educational requirements, etc.

sex differences in styles in leadership

Gender differences in leadership effectiveness (Eagly et al., 1995): d = -.02 (subjective) or d = .05 (objective)
Bias in evaluations of leadership roles (Eagly et al., 1992): d = .05

BIG CAVEAT

leadership ability dependent on stereotypical role congruity

autocratic leadership

when a leader dictates policies and procedures, decides what goals are to be achieved, and directs and controls all activities without any meaningful participation by the subordinates

Transformational leaders

set high standards and serve as role models by mentoring and empowering their subordinates

Discuss stereotypes of women and leadership issues women face as a result.

When women occupy positions of leadership, they tend to be stereotypes as not having the right leadership characteristics. -not lacking in abilities, traits, and skills -- (d = -.02) unless leadership position is consistent with the male role)

Describe Eagly's role congruity theory and its explanation of prejudice against women in the workplace.

being female is incongruent with positions of leadership. leadership behavior from a woman is often viewed less favorably