Archaeological Theory

What does "to sit on the fence" mean?

being undecided, neutral in action, trying not to support either side

What is epistemology?

study of knowledge

What are 4 characteristics of science?

testable, verifiable, based on evidence, can be falsified

What are 4 characteristics of non-science?

not testable, not verifiable, based on belief, believed to be incapable of being wrong

What are the 3 ways in which archaeologists justify their knowledge claims?

induction, deduction, abduction

What does deduction reason by?

necessity

To which term belong these indicator words: necessarily, must, certainly, absolutly

deduction

What is deduction?

conclusion is certain

What is induction?

conclusion is probable

What does induction reason by?

probability

To which term belong these indicator words: probably, likely, plausible, reasonable to conclude?

induction

What is the problem of induction?

doesn't yield certainty

What is abduction?

conclusion is an educated guess

What does abduction reason by?

the best guess

What does abduction start out with?

a set of accepted facts

What is equifinality?

various paths may lead to the same outcome

In which reasoning method involves equifinality?

abduction

What is underdetermination?

theory by data; the available evidence may be insufficient for making sense of data

What 5 factors constitute the best explanation?

Conservativism, Modesty, Simplicity,
Generality,
Refutability

What is the process of deductive reasoning?

theory, hypothesis, observation, confirmation.
Starts with a hypothesis and examines the possibilities to reach a logical conclusion

What is the process of inductive reasoning?

observation, pattern, tentative hypothesis, theory.
Makes broad generalisations from specific observations. There is data and conclusions are drawn from the data.

What is the process of abductive reasoning?

Starts from an incomplete set of observations and goes from there to the likeliest possible explanation. It is used to make hypotheses.

Which reasoning methods are used to make hypotheses?

abduction & induction

Which reasoning method needs the hypothesis to be correct for it to work?

deduction

What are the 5 characteristics of Erklären (Explanation)?

Events, Causes/laws, 3rd person perspective, (it, they), Natural & life sciences

What are the 5 characteristics of Verstehen (Interpretation)?

Actions, Reasons/intentions/meaning, 1st person perspective, (I, you), Human sciences/humanities

Which method focusses on events?

Erklären

Which method focusses on causes/laws?

Erklären

Which method falls within the natural and life sciences?

Erklären

Which method focusses on actions?

Verstehen

Which method focusses on reasons, intentions, meaning?

Verstehen

Which method falls within the human sciences/humanities?

Verstehen

What approach does processual archaeology follow?

Cultural process approach

What is the cultural process approach?

examining how component parts of a culture function as a system and how culture changes over time

What are the 2 paradigms in archaeology?

processual and postprocessual paradigm

What is the processual paradigm?

Explains social, economic, and cultural change as the result of adaption to material conditions

What is the postprocessual paradigm?

Focuses on humanistic approaches and rejects scientific objectivity; more concerned with interpreting the past than testing hypotheses

What are the 2 types of anthropologists in terms of studying culture?

anthropologists who conceive cultures in terms of meanings and values vs anthropologists who study cultures as an ecological system or process

What does the term 'Heuristic' mean?

a way of approaching things, a way of finding out about the past

What does the term 'Hermeneutics' mean?

theory and methodology of interpretation

What are the 2 hermeneutic views of human nature?

Ipse/self(hood), idem/same(ness)

What does ipse/self(hood) entail?

to act, agency

What does idem/same(ness) entail?

to undergo, suffer

How did early Wittgenstein see truth?

as adequate representation

How did early Wittgenstein see language?

as representation, mirror

What was Wittgenstein's theory on meaning?

Atomism (early) and Holism (late)

What is Atomisn?

being able to interpretate through distict, separable, independent components ('atoomtheorie')

What is Holism?

being able to interpretate through interconnected components

How did late Wittgenstein see truth?

as local consensus

How did late Wittgenstein see language?

as communication, construction

How does the specific paradigm define archaeological research?

defines the meaning of terms, what is considered a solid argument, what is a good reason to revise a view and what is reliable emperical evidence

What did Putnam start out as?

a 'hard' realist

How does scientism see the vocabulary of the 'hard' natural sciences?

as privileged

How does scientism see the history of the natural sciences discipline?

as a relentless advance

What does Putnam attack?

scientism

What is deductive falsification paramount?

theories can be refuted, not proved; only falsifiable theories are scientific

What is the scientist who engages in verstehen (interpretative understanding) trying to do?

Empatheticly making sense of a phenomenon by looking for the perspective that gives it meaning.

What is the scientist who engages in erklären (law-governed explanatation) trying to do?

Explanatoricly making sense of a phenomenon by finding the laws that govern it.

What are the 2 different kinds of empirical objects?

natural and mental phenomena

What is the way to acquire scientifically respectable knowledge of a phenomenon?

gain comprehensive insight into what is of importance to the essence of the phenomenon

How do things get meaning?

because people acribe meaning to things

What are 2 things a scientist engaged in verstehen needs to be looking out for?

deciding on the relevance of each and every meaning acription, and double hermeneutics can lead to a quest for the original meaning of a phenomenon

What is the hermeneutic circle?

shows relationship between parts & whole, content & unity, words & deed.
cannot have one without the other

How can science be described?

an attempt to make systematic and generally accessible sense of all phenomena

What was the main goal of the positivist project?

to show that there is no need and place for emphatetic sence in science

What are the 3 main problems with the positivistic project?

intentional explanations, subjective meanings, deliberation

What do positivists claim?

reasons are in fact sets of beliefs and desires that function as causes is the starting point for a social science that can make progress by engaging in erklären

What does erklären require?

taking pains to fill in the endlessly revisable details of the laws that govern the investigated phenomena

What does verstehen require?

taking pains to redescribe human phenomena over and over again until they make empathetic sense

What does science aim at?

objectification

What is rational choice theory?

focuses on decision making in an individual. reduces the process to careful considerations of perceived benefits and harms to the individual

What does Putnam not believe in?

privileged character of vocabulary of the hard natural sciences

According to the epistemology Putnam developed, what are the most elementary concepts, categorisations, periodisations always a part of?

a specific theoretical discourse

How does Putnam view knowledge?

rationality, thinking and acting reasonably is a local affair

How does Putnam view truth?

Internal realism: better to speak of the plausability or acceptability then of 'truth'

How do processual archaeologists study culture?

study culture as an ecological system or process tied not so much to what is in the heads as what is in the stomachs of actors

How do postprocessual archaeologists study culture?

tend to conceive of culture in terms of meanings and values in the heads of actors

What is the encyclopaedic approach?

wanting to know a little bit of everything

What were the early (

renewed focus on Greek and Roman art, detailed ordening, description and recording of objects and sites, preservation, encyclopaedic approach

What does 'fluid' area interaction entail?

traits flowing and rippling from culture to culture

What are the 3 types of classification?

form, stratigraphy, spatial location

What is hyper diffusionism?

the belief that everything originates in the Near East

What is the foundation of processual archaeology?

hypotheses on past human behaviour needed to be testable on archaeological material

What is ethno-archaeology?

using observations in the present to understand the past

When did processual archaeology start?

1960s, after WOII

Why did processual archaeology start?

methods became more important and reflection on these methods more prevalent.

What is Binfords view on culture?

culture is a by-product of humans in connection with surroundigs

What type of reasoning did Binford use?

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

What is the background of Binford?

natural sciences

What did Binford think archaeology needs?

scientific methods and no more culture history

What was Libby responsible for?

C14 dating

What was the main focus of Clarke?

bringing more methods and technologies within the same paradigm, rather than introducing a new one

What does Clark want archaeology to become?

more precise

What are Clarkes views on archaeology?

do not forget culture history, stay closer to artefacts rather then human behaviour

What was done with the space for a new way of thinking, growth and science after WOII?

methods in all disciplines could be developed, shared and take over previous ideas

What is the view of Clark on culture?

Culture and human behaviour are intersecting

Did processual archaeology move to 'why' or 'when'?

moved from when to why

What does the middle range theory entail?

moving from archaeological pattern to social process

Who pushed the middle range theory?

Binford

What 4 steps does the middle range theory take?

identify causality between human dynamics and static archaeological record, recognize patterns in static remains, infer human dynamics based on these remains, comparatively evaluate the inferences