Functionalism

What sort of theory is functionalism?

• structural

• consensus

What is the organic analogy?

• society = system (organism) with interconnected parts with functions

• society has basic needs/ “functional prerequisites” (Parsons)

When did Emile Durkheim live?

1858-1917

What does Emile Durkheim argue about functionalism and sociology?

• society has basic requirements which must be met to function effectively; most important = social order

• individuals can be brought together to form ordered society by establishing “the essential similarities which collective life demands” eg. shared moral beliefs —> “collective conscience” —> “social solidarity”

• sociology = study of “social facts”

• social facts = shared aspects of society (eg. religious beliefs, moral obligations), external to individuals in that they are “general throughout a given society”

• Durkheim: social facts are “endowed with the power of coercion by reason of which they control [individuals]” but are also part of individual consciousness

• sociologists need to explain both cause + continuance of social facts (eg. Christianity serves “some social end”)

• religion expresses + reinforces the shared morality which forms the collective conscience eg. “thou shalt not kill” reinforces value placed on human life, strengthening social obligations by representing in sacred terms (eg. marriage getting Christian blessing) - ALSO provides social solidarity

What does Talcott Parsons argue about functionalism and sociology?

• social order is possible by “value consensus” (agreement about values) —> common identity + common goals —> “social equilibrium”

• sociology’s main task: to analyse “patterns of value orientation in the social system” & how they become integral to society

• social equilibrium maintained by (1) socialisation + (2) social control (police, familiar disapproval, etc.)

What does Talcott Parsons suggest are the 4 basic functional prerequisites of every social system?

1. adaptation (some degree of control over environment)

2. goal attainment (need to set goals)

3. integration (“adjustment of conflict”, mostly enabled by law)

4. pattern maintenance (maintaining values)

How does Talcott Parsons approach the criticism that functionalism fails to provide explanations for social change?

• in practice no social system in perfect equilibrium

• process of social change = “moving equilibrium”

• various parts of society connected so change in one part —> other parts operate to return to state of equilibrium

How does Robert Merton question the idea of universal functionalism?

• questions fact that all parts of the social system are functional for the entire system

• in societies with various faiths, religion may divide rather than unite eg. Sunnis + Shias

• parts of society may be (1) functional (2) dysfunctional or (3) non-functional

How does Robert Merton question the functionalist idea of indispensability?

• functionalists often see religion as indispensable eg. Davis + Moore (1967): religion plays a “unique and indispensable” part in society

• Merton: functional prerequisites may be met by range of alternative institutions - “functional alternatives/equivalents” eg. communism = meets same functional prerequisites as religion

How does Robert Merton suggest we can find whether societal parts are functional, dysfunctional or non-functional?

• question indispensability/universal functionalism ~ no assumptions

• parts of society should be analysed in terms of “effects” or “consequences” for society/groups/individuals?

What did Robert Merton suggest about manifest and latent functions?

Manifest functions: positive functions “intended + recognised by participants in the system”

Latent functions: neither “intended nor recognised”

What example does Robert Merton use to illustrate the difference between manifest and latent functions?

• Hopi = Native American tribe in Arizona

• In times of drought, perform rain-dance with aim (manifest function) of magically producing rain for crops

• latent function = promoting sense of solidarity in times of hardship

What are the CRITICISMS of functionalism?

• teleological (eg. argues that Christianity exists because of its beneficial effects)

• continued existence: functionalists sometimes argue instead that the continued existence of an institution may be explained by its effects, BUT it’s difficult to assess whether net effect of given institution is beneficial, & consequently people don’t actively choose to maintain them

• questioning value consensus: Parsons criticised as consensus is assumed rather than shown to exist, & often society’s stability owes more to absence than presence of value consensus (eg. lack of commitment to value of achievement by those at bottom of stratification systems; if all were committed to achievement would cause disorder)

• determinism: pictures behaviour as product of system

• conflict and coercion: Alvin Gouldner (1971) argues that Parsons fails to explore whether ends and values are actually ours or imposed by groups (conflict theories better recognise dominance/exploitation of dif. groups)