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Socialization
The process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the culture in.
Three goals of socialization
Self-regulation
Role preparation
Sources of meaning
Self-regulation
One of the goals of socialization
The capacity for exercising self-control to restrain one’s impulses and comply with social norms
Role preparation
One of the goals of socialization
Includes preparation for occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood
Sources of meaning
One of the goals of socialization
Indicate what is important, what is to be valued, and what is to be lived for
Individualism
A culture that promotes independence, individual achievement, and individual freedoms, found mostly in western cultures
Collectivism
A culture that values cooperation, community, and mutual support, found mostly in eastern cultures
What promotes development of the interdependent self?
Collectivist cultures
What promotes development of the independent self?
Individualistic cultures
Broad socialization
Favors individualism, encourages individual uniqueness, independence, and self-expression
Pros: Heightened creativity and more innovation
Cons: More loneliness, social problems, and disorder
Narrow socialization
Favors collectivism, values obedience and conformity and discourages deviations from cultural expectations
Pros: Strong sense of community and great social order
Cons: More suppression of individual uniqueness
Eight sources of socialiaztion
Family
Peers/Friends
School
Community
Work
Media
Legal system
Culture beliefs
What soucre of socialization diminishes in adolescence?
Family
Cultural beliefs of African Americans
Emphasize obedience and respect for elders
Cultural beliefs of Asian Americans
Emphasize obedience to parents and obligations to family
Cultural beliefs of Latinx American
Strong sense of duty to family; financial support for parents is essential
Religious beliefs
Typically include explanations for how the world began and what happens to us when we die
Typically contain 3 main rules for socialization called prescriptions
Three main prescriptions
Self-regulation
Role preparation
Sources of meaning
Are american more or less religious than other “developed” countries?
More
Moralistic Therapeutic Deism
A god exists who created life and watches over us
The god wants people to be good and use a book to teach them
Central goal is to be happy
God does not to be involved until a problem occurs
Idea of heaven or reward after death
Positive outcomes of religion
Less depression, less drug use, less delinquent
Better relationship with parents
More likely to volunteer service
Adolescents and emerging adults religion
Religious participation declines:
Age where making own decisions and values
Religious doctrine not as accepted
Religious faith associated with positive characteristics
Kohlberg’s Theory
Moral development based on cognitive development
Preconventional reasoning
Conventional reasoning
Postconventional reasoning
Preconventional reasoning
Based on perceptions of likelihood of external reward or punishment
Conventional reasoning
Right is what agrees with rules established by tradition and authority
Postconventional reasoning
What is right is derived from universal principles
Worldview theory of moral development
The ultimate basis of morality is a person’s world view, assesses a set of cultural beliefs that explain what it means to be human, how human relations should be conducted, and how problems should be addressed
Relies on three ideas-
Moral reasoning
Moral evalutions
Moral behavior
Moral reasoning
Explanations for why a behavior is right or wrong
Moral evalutions
Judgements as to whether a behavior is right or wrong
Moral behaviors
Actions that reflect values of what is right or wrong
Three types of ethics based on worldviews
The ethic of autonomy
The ethic of community
The ethic of divinity
Changes in cognition and political beliefs
Change in cognitive mode
Decline in authoritarian political views
Capacity to develop ideology
Change in cognitive mode
Development of formal operations, increased use of abstract ideas
Decline in authoritarian politcal views
Balance individual rights, long and short term costs/benefits
Capacity to develop ideology
Constructed a set of beliefs as a basis for poltical attitudes
Emerging adults political involvement
Low conventional poltical participation due to low trust
High participation in organizations devoted to particular issues because they more closely align with their individual beliefs
Gender
Refers to social categories of male, female, or other
Sex
Refers to biological status
Boys role in traditional cultures
Less contact with family, more contact with peers. More broad socialization of the two sexes, still narrow overall
Girls role in traditional cultures
Work along side their mothers by adolescence as almost equal partners, prepared for marriage and child rearing. Very narrow socializtaion
The three requirements of manhood in traditional cultures
Show they can provide
Show they can protect
Show they can procreate
Effects of globalization on gender roles in traditional cultures
More girls are being educated and more women are getting jobs.
Restrictions of women in the 18-19th century US
Few occupational roles
Cultural perception of fragility
Preservation of virginity
Ideal physical appearance
Manhood in 17-18th century
Communal manhood: Focus on preparing to assume adult male role responsibilities in work and marriage
Manhood in 19th century
Self-made manhood: Individualism led expectations that men become independent from their families
Manhood in 20th century
Passionate manhood: Passionate emotions become regarded as more favorable
Recent trends in gender beliefs
A shift towards egaltarian gender attitudes
Gender intesification hypothesis
Idea that psychological and behavioral differences between males and females become more pronounced at adolescence
This is due to the intensified socialization pressures to conform to culturally prescribed gender roles
Socialization of gender
Results in increases differences between males and females as adolescence progresses
Differential gender socialization
Socializing males and females according to different expectations about the attitudes and behavior appropriate to each gender
Family and differential gender socialization
Parents encouarge gender-specific activities and discourage going outside their gender
Peers and differential gender socialization
Peers punish and ridicule those who deviate from gender role expectations
School and differential gender socialization
Teachers also reinforce traditional gender roles and cultural messages about gender
See boys as more agressive and girls as more compliant
Problems for girls enhanced by gender socialization
Focus on physical appearance and negative body image, develope unhealthy eating habits
Problems for boys enhanced by gender socialization
Aggressiveness becomes a problem, heightened delinquency, risky behavior, and drug abuse
Self-socialization
The way children seek to maintain consistency between the norms they have learned about gender and their behavior, becomes more rigid in early adolescence
Gender schema theory
Influence how we interpret the behavior of others and what we expect of them based on gender. We also tend to notice information that fits with our gender schemas and ignore information that doesn’t.
Black women
Higher self resilience
Higher self esteem
Black men
Higher physical toughness and aggressiveness
More risk taking behavior
Emphasis on resposiblity and diligence
Latina women
Taught to be more submissive
Movments that aim to elevate role
Latino men
More likely to follow idea that men should be dominant over women (Machismo)
Follow traditional requirements of manhood
Asian american women
Socialization often follows country of origin
Stereotyped as submissive
Asian american men
Stereotyped as smart but not athletically gifted
Gender stereotype
Attributing certain characteristics to others simply on the basis of whether they are male or female
Why do gender stereotypes persist?
While differences between genders exist, they are small. Ideas persist due to gender schemas and the pattern of ignoring what does not fit within it.
Social roles theory
Social roles of men and women enhance or suppress different capabilities. Differential gender socialization leads males and females to develop different skills and attitudes, which lead to different behaviors.
Self fullfilling prophecy
Individualistic cultures and the self
Promote independent self
Encourage self reflection
Self esteem is valued highly
Collectivistic cultures and the self
Promote interdependent self
Focuses on the need of community which takes priority over self esteem
Types of selves in adolescence
Actual self
Possible self (Ideal and feared)
Actual self
The idea and conceptualization we have of ourself
Who I am
Possible self
Who I might become
Ideal self
Who I would like to be
Feared self
Who I dread becoming
False self
A presentation of self that does not align with the actual self. Mostly used on dating partners
Self-esteem
Refers to a person’s overall sense of worth and well-being
Self-concept
Refers to the way a person views and evaluates themselves
When does self-esteem decline?
Early adolescence
When does self-esteem rise?
Late adolescence and emerging adulthood
Baseline self-esteem
Person’s stable, enduring sense of work and well-being
Barometric self-esteem
The flucuating sense of worth and well-being people have as they repond to different thoughts, experiences, and interactions in the course of a day
Harter’s 8 domains of adolescent self-image
Scholastic competence
Social competence
Athletic competence
Physical competence
Job competence
Romantic appeal
Behavioral conduct
Close friendship
Which of the domains of self image is most strongly related to global self esteem?
Physical appearance
Causes of self esteem
Feeling accepted and approved by others (Parents, peers, and adults outside family)
Effects of self esteem
Low self esteem in family/school and high self esteem in peer will lead to risk behaviors
ESM studies
Adolescents report more extremes of emotions than preadolescents or adults
Biology behind Storm and Stress model
Brain development
Hormonal changes
Cognitive and environmental factors
Alone time for adolescents
25% of time is spent alone, mood is low because the time is used for self reflection. After alone time mood increases
Social loneliness
People feel that they lack a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships (Quantity)
Emotional loneliness
People feel that the relationships they have lack sufficient closeness and intimacy (Quality)
Alone time in emerging adulthood
Only group who spends more time alone is the elderly
Report higher feelings of loneliness than adolescents or adults
Social loneliness is low but emotional loneliness is high
Erik Erikson’s Theory
Developmental theory that suggests each period of life is characterized by distinctive developmental issues called a “crisis”
Crisis of adolescence
Identity versus identity confusion
Psychosocial moratorium
A period during adolescence when adult responsibilities are postponed as young people try on various possible selves
Marcia’s identity status model
Classified adolescents into four identity stauses of exploration
Achievement
Foreclosure
Moratorium
Diffusion
Diffusion
No exploration and no commitment
Moratorium
Exploration but no commitment
Foreclosure
No experimentation but a commitment
Achievement
Commitment after exploration
Critiques of Erikson
Status model is narrow and outdated
Biased towards male development
Assumes independent self that has freedom of choices
Postmodern perspective
The most common form of identity. A conception of identity as complex and highly variable across contexts and across time
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