AP Psychology Unit 3: Development & Learning

Chronological development

Development measured by the passage of time, such as age milestones.

Lifespan development

The study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the entire life.

Stability and change

The debate on whether personality and traits remain consistent or change over time.

Nature and nurture

The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has a greater influence on development.

Continuous development

The belief that development is a gradual, ongoing process without distinct stages.

Discontinuous development

The belief that development occurs in distinct stages with qualitative changes.

Teratogens

Harmful substances (e.g., drugs, viruses) that can cause developmental issues during pregnancy.

Fine motor coordination

The development of small, precise movements (e.g., writing, buttoning).

Gross motor coordination

The development of large movements (e.g., crawling, running).

Maturation

The biological growth process that enables orderly developmental changes, largely uninfluenced by experience.

Reflexes

Inborn automatic responses to specific stimuli in infants (e.g., grasping reflex).

Rooting reflex

An infant's response to touch on the cheek, turning toward the stimulus and opening the mouth.

Visual cliff

An experiment showing that infants develop depth perception.

Critical periods

Specific time frames in which certain experiences must occur for normal development.

Sensitive periods

Optimal windows for learning certain skills, though development can still occur outside of them.

Imprinting

A rapid, instinctual attachment to the first moving object seen, observed in some animals (e.g., ducklings).

Growth spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight during puberty.

Puberty

The period of physical maturation during which individuals become capable of reproduction.

Primary sex characteristics

the reproductive organs and structures necessary for reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly related to reproduction (e.g., voice deepening, breast development).

Menarche

A female's first menstrual period.

Spermarche

A male's first ejaculation, often occurring in sleep (nocturnal emission).

Menopause

The end of the menstrual cycle and reproductive ability in females.

Schemas

Cognitive structures that help organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage (birth-2 years) when infants learn through sensory experiences and movement.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage (2-7 years), characterized by symbolic thinking but lacking logical reasoning.

Mental symbols

Representations of objects or concepts in the mind.

Pretend play

The ability to imagine scenarios and act them out, a key cognitive milestone.

Conservation

understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement

Reversibility

The understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have thoughts and feelings.

Egocentrism

A child's inability to see the world from another's perspective.

Theory of mind

The understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage (7-11 years), when logical thought emerges but is limited to concrete objects.

Systematic thinking

The ability to approach problems methodically, developing in adolescence.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's final stage (12+ years), when abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges.

Abstract thinking

The ability to think about concepts that are not physically present.

Hypothetical thinking

The ability to consider possibilities and consequences beyond immediate reality.

Scaffolding

Vygotsky's concept that adults provide temporary support to help children learn.

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and with help.

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, increasing with age.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to reason quickly and solve new problems, declining with age.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function, often associated with aging.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in language (e.g., 'b' in 'bat').

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in language (e.g., 'un-' in 'unhappy').

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences.

Grammar

The rules governing language structure.

Syntax

The arrangement of words to create sentences.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.

Babbling

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds made by infants around 4-6 months.

One-word stage

The stage where infants use single words to communicate meaning.

Telegraphic speech

Early speech that lacks function words but conveys meaning (e.g., 'want cookie').

Overgeneralization of language rules

Applying grammatical rules too broadly (e.g., 'goed' instead of 'went').

Ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's model describing environmental influences on development.

Microsystem

Immediate environments (e.g., family, school).

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher relationship).

Exosystem

Indirect environments that still affect the individual (e.g., parent's workplace).

Macrosystem

cultural and societal influences

Chronosystem

The impact of time and historical events on development.

Attachment styles

Patterns of emotional bonds formed in early childhood.

Secure attachment

The child feels comfortable exploring when the caregiver is present and is distressed when they leave.

Insecure attachment

The child shows anxiety or avoidance in their relationship with the caregiver.

Avoidant attachment

The child avoids closeness with the caregiver.

Anxious attachment

the child is overly county and fearful of separation

Disorganized attachment

The child shows inconsistent or confused behaviors toward the caregiver.

Temperament

A person's natural emotional reactivity and intensity.

Imaginary audience

The belief that one is constantly being observed by others, common in adolescence.

Personal fable

The belief in one's uniqueness and invulnerability, common in teenagers.

Classical conditioning

Learning through association, as demonstrated by Pavlov.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned response (UR)

A natural response to a UCS (e.g., salivation).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after association (e.g., bell).

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a CS (e.g., salivation to a bell).

Operant conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments, as described by Skinner.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to encourage behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior.

Fixed ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Social learning theory

Bandura's theory that learning occurs through observation and imitation.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating others.