LatAm PS - topic 1 - flashcard | Quizlet

Latin America...

is a geographical, linguistic and cultural concept occupying the center and south of America, which was a colony of Spain and portugal for centuries; it encompasses 20 countries with a total population of 660 million, speaking primarily Spanish and Portuguese

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

an agreement between Portugal and Spain which declared that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal

the colonial period in Latin America...

was characterized by a colonial economy focused on mineral extraction and agriculture which led to social stratification, exploitation and emancipation struggles

general political cleavages and electoral behavior in LAC

- elections are quite fair in many countries but irregularities do happen

- some regimes are now clearly authoritarian and others show signs of lack of independence

- constitutional reforms are not uncommon

- lack of confidence in political parties, electoral volatility and party system volatility

- dissatisfaction with democracy and citizen distrust (esp. among young people)

historical background of Latin America

- pre-Columbine America: 54 million people lived in two main empires that encompassed what is now known as Mexico and Peru: the Aztec Empire and the Inca Empire

- the conquest took over 100 years, starting with colonial control over Caribbean Hispaniola (Columbus, 1492); in 1521, the Aztecs were defeated (Herman Cortes) and in 1532 the Incas were defeated too (Francisco Pizarro)

- for the next 3 centuries, the region was ruled by the Empire of Portugal and the Empire of Spain (divided in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru)

3 types of economies during the colonial period

1. mining: with indigenous people where many were exploited or died due to diseases

2. plantation agriculture (cocoa/cotton/sugar/coffee...) that relied heavily on slave labor

3. extensive agriculture: cattle, sheep and wheat (led to the disappearance of the native population)

the type of economy that the colony had, had big effects in the racial composition of that colony!

colonies were multi-racial and multi-ethnic and a caste-system was created with...

- white Europeans born in the colonies (peninsulares/criollos)

- Indians (native population)

- Afro-Americans (brought via slave trade)

- mestizas (mixed persons of European and indigenous ancestry)

independence movements

started between 1810-1825 and took advantage of the power vacuum that was created with the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula

key figures of independence

- Simon Bolivar (South-America)

- San Martin (South-America)

- Miguel Hidalgo (Mexico)

- Jose Morelos (Mexico)

in Brazil...

independence was achieved in a peculiar and less violent way

by 1825, almost all territories were independent, except...

Cuba & Dominican Republic

despite achieving independence...

the established elitist and conservative order created by the Spanish largely remained as no social or political revolution had taken place

challenges after independence

- initial period of anarchy in the 1920s due to the rise of caudillos installing political instability

- economic stagnation due to civil wars and destroyed infrastructure

- trade was paralyzed and public debt rose

- the trade of slaves was forbidden but not slavery so a sense of racial hierarchy lasted

- the US adopted an imperialist point of view and began interventionism (outlined by the Monroe Doctrine of 1823)

1880-1930: oligarchic dominance and state formation

state formation was primarily a state-led model that was driven by the desire to meet the European demand for primary products (export boom: European demand for raw materials which gave opportunity to grow); this led to the agro-export model that was characterized by the export of raw materials and the import of manufactured goods --> this era ended with the Great Depression that led to the collapse of exports

a state is strong when...

it is able to control violence, enforce laws, defend its territory and develop policies nationwide

reasons why states remain weak in Latin America

- cultural biases and social values enforced by Spanish and Portuguese heritage that worked against the development of a strong state: when colonizers established institutions to share power, state capacity proved greater in the long run, but colonizers in LA focused on natural resource extraction, installing predatory institutions that led to the formation of weak states (patrimonialism)

- 19th century challenges: there was a chance to end patrimonialism and privilege post-independence but this opportunity was often not fully taken advantage of

- the contraction of states in LA was done in between wars with caudillos that blocked growth and productivity

once processes of state formation were completed, the social group known as ... was the dominant factor

the oligarchy (the wealthiest groups)

2 types of oligarchic regimes

1. constitutional oligarchies with varied respect for election results and rights

2. personalist dictatorships (puppet regimes of the US) where leaders consolidated power and marginalized other institutions, often based on high levels of corruption and loyalty

revolutions in LA

revolutions are radical and violent and profound changes stem from continued oppression and social discontent; they cannot be understood without the existence of tyrants or dictators who generate a situation of oppression that precedes the revolutionary outbreak; revolutions often pursue goals of national liberation, anti-dictatorial change and social/economic transformation

4 main revolutions in LA

- 1910: Mexico

- 1952: Bolivia

- 1959: Cuba

- 1979: Nicaragua

the Cuban Revolution (1959)

- against Batista's government; led by Fidel Castro

- ideology: Marxism-Leninism

- significance: the region's first example of a modern non-capitalist system that was explicitly against the US

- initial policies: the new socialist economy featured a fundamental role for the state; early socio-economic policies were highly egalitarian and tackled structural problems that led to the elimination of illiteracy and massive schooling; universal health care and full employment; cessation of the marginalization of women, mullatos and blacks

- current regime in Cuba: an authoritarian regime with a caudillista style and charismatic domination, marked by extreme nationalism and anti-US sentiment; over time, welfare levels have decreased and the state apparatus has become obsolete

the Nicaraguan Revolution (1979-1990) (Revolution Popular Sandinista)

- put an end to the dictatorship of the Somoza family, overthrowing Anastasio Somoza Debayle (whose regime was characterized by strong personal control, repression and a military/economic alliance with the US)

- ideological basis: influenced by foquismo (Che Guevara), development of dependency theory & liberalization theology (Catholic Church)

- evolution of the revolution:

1979: Debayle resigns and flees and a 5-member provisional government takes control; early focus on increasing political participation, equality and ensuring Nicaragua's own destiny; main political structure = Junta Revolucionaria led by Daniel Ortega (FSLN)

1981: the right-wing Contras began an armed insurgency against the Sandinistas and were supported by the US under Raegan (military and economic harassment led to a 'low-intensity war' and the progressive radicalization of the Sandinista government)

1989: under internationalpressure to democratize the country, the TELA Accord is signed

1990: the Sandinista government is defeated in elections and Chamorro becomes president (reasons for defeat: economic and war situation, widespread desire to improve relations with the US, the perception of the FSLN being hostile to the church and the Piñata Sandinista (leaders claimed luxurious state property))

2006: FSLN leader Daniel Ortega is re-elected

3 waves of democratization in LA

1. 1900-1939: Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Uruguay express democracy; elites embraced democracy as a stagey to resolve disputes between elite factions

2. 1940-1977: Bolivia, brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru and Venezuela embrace democracy, promoted by the middle class and development

(two reverse waves: in the 1950s with different military coups and in the 1960s/70s with guerrilla wars and wars against subversion)

3. 1979-2000: El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and Paraguay + the re-democratization countries whose democracies had collapsed in a counter wave

3 waves of militarization in LA

1. most coups between 1910-19: economic expansion was based on the export-import model but the growing working class began to make demands about their working class which the oligarchic classes could not answer leading to the military taking power and imposing rule and order

2. peak in the 1930s when the great depression called into question the viability of export-import strategies and social suffering persisted

3. 1960s/70s: the military took over in many countries for long periods of time due to concern over communist penetrations (coups of the Cold War)

Chile's military dictatorship (1973)

- pre-authoritarian Chile had a long democratic trajectory under president Allende with many implemented reforms to nationalize and modernize the country but also a lot of unrest

- crisis of legitimacy y and democratic erosion led to a military coup that created an authoritarian regime led by Pinochet...

- this was a personalist dictatorship where human rights were violated, freedoms were infringed, political opposition was persecuted and there was a long depoliticization of Chilean society (political parties were seen as evil)

- reasons why Chile's coup was successful: polarization of 3 irreconcilable projects (extreme political polarization), Allende's government implemented extensive reforms that were seen as maximalist & the US supported the opposition + lack of military support to Allende

general features of authoritarian regimes

- military-led regimes where armed forces claim to safeguard order

- concentration of power in a small coalition of actors (more or less personalistic regimes)

- legitimacy based on abstract principles without a strong and structured ideology

- arbitrary and discontinuous repressive action

inclusionary military regimes

- long-term commitments to ideologies

- sought to create a base of support through mobilization and national reformist projects

- implemented redistributive measures

- did not engage in large-scale repression

exclusionary military regimes

- central driving force was demobilization of popular sectors (they were the opposition)

- relied on anti-communism and economic liberalism (support form the middle and upper classes)

- engaged in severe repression of opposition

the third wave of democratization (1979-89)

many Latin American countries (esp. those whose democracies had previously collapsed) transitioned away from authoritarian rule; most of these transitions were elite-led negotiations between the authoritarian regime and the opposition

the major drivers to explain the 3rd wave of democratization

- loss of legitimacy of authoritarian regimes

- ideological changes: the left moderated

- external factors: the roles of the US, think tanks and a contagion effect

- role of elites: key interactions and strategies among political actors were central to the outcomes

3 main types of transitions to democracy...

1. transformation/reform: elites in power took the lead in bringing about democracy, it was an essential and intentional reform by the governing group; this often occurred in strong military regimes where the government controlled the means of coercion and/or was economically successful: the reformers within the government needed to be stronger than those opposing! (Chile, Peru, Brazil)

2. replacement (collapse/breakdown): opposition groups took the lead and the authoritarian regime was collapsed; the opposition had to be stronger than the government and moderates within the opposition had to be stronger than the extremists (balance!) (Argentina)

3. transplacement/extrication: democratization resulted largely from joint action by both the government and opposition groups; this required reformers within the government and moderates within the opposition to be roughly equal in power and be able to dominate the anti-democratic groups on their side (El Salvador, Bolivia)

conditions posed by military leaders in their withdrawal of power...

- amnesty: no persecution, punishment or retaliation against military officers

- institutional autonomy: roles and autonomy would be respected

the military's success in securing these conditions depended on...

their relative power: they dominated the process in transformations (Brazil or Peru), they negotiated modifications when power was more equal (Uruguay), but sometimes they had to agree to unconditional surrender when their power was weak (Argentina)

2 main approaches to explain transitions in democracy

1. structural aspects: economic development and modernized political culture (1950s/60s)

2. political actions and strategies of the actors: determinism and contingency

transitional justice

the process that countries undergo after civil war or dictatorship to confront a history of human rights violations; this aims to reveal the truth about past wrongdoings by state agents and offer a partial remedy to victims and families

the primary instruments used to achieve transitional justice

- trials to prosecute and condemn perpetrators of crimes

- truth commissions that try to discover and reveal past wrongdoings and make recommendations for reparations

the ability of new democracies to achieve civilian control over the military and pursue justice depends on...

the relative power of the outgoing regime

transitional justice in Argentina

the dictatorship failed massively and led to the virtual unconditional surrender of power - outcome: civilian leaders rejected the military's requests for assurances, leading to trials for high command, however, military pressure resulted in two laws (Punto Final Law & Law of Due Obedience) which protected perpetrators but these laws were deemed unconstitutional in 2005

transiitonal justice in Chile

dictator Pinochet was in a strong position of power, having negotiated the transitions and remained as chief commander of the armed police: president Alywin created the National Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which issued the Rettig Report but due to the military's power, the transition included 'authoritarian enclaves' in the new constitution and there is an ongoing process of civil trials against military personnel