Exam 3

Emotions

Feeling or affect that occurs when engaged in an interaction that is important. Acts as a signal to tell us about a situation.

What influences emotions?

Biological foundations (increased BP, HR, and R), brain stem, amygdala, and hippocampus are highly involved, cognitive influences (coping skills and panic attacks), and a person’s experiences (more comfortable with some people/environments).

Emotional Regulation

Effectively managing arousal to adapt to situations and reach a goal. As we age, we have a gradual shift from external to internal sources (caregiver to ourselves). With age, we have improved cognitive strategies for regulating emotion, minimizing negative emotions, and coping with stress.

Emotion Coaching Parents

Parents monitor the child’s emotional reactions, teaching labels and coping skills, usually causing the child to be better at emotional regulation.

Emotion Dismissing Parents

Ignoring emotions or not allowing the child to feel their emotions. Can lead to the child having impaired emotional regulation.

Infancy Emotion Development

Seven primary emotions appear in the first six months. Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust. Fear is the first emotion experienced because after birth, everything is new. Emotional regulation develops gradually and contextually.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear or wariness around strangers

Separation Protest

When a child cries or throws a fit when a parent leaves. These both occur within the first 18 months, related to primary emotions.

What are the 7 primary emotions?

Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust.

Self Conscious Emotions

Emerge after 18 months. Includes jealousy, shame, guilt, pride, embarrassment, and empathy.

What are the first forms of emotional communication?

Cries and smiles.

Two Types of Smiles in Infancy

Reflexive smile appears within the first month, is involuntary, doesn’t occur from external stimuli, and usually occurs in sleep. Social smile appears around 4-6 weeks, in response to social stimuli.

Early Childhood Emotion Development

At 2-4 years, we increase the number of terms used to describe emotions. At 4-5 years, we show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. By 5 years, most children can accurately identify emotions produced by challenging situations and ways to cope.

What is emotional regulation important for in early childhood?

Social competence (do we understand our peers emotions?), executive functioning (planning ahead and not acting on emotion), and success in peer relationships (harder to interact with those with poor regulation).

Middle/Late Childhood Emotion Development

Developmental changes in emotion include improved emotional understanding, ability to intentionally suppress/hide emotions, take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions, and capacity for genuine empathy. Ability to utilize coping strategies depends on support systems.

Adolescence Emotion Development

Isn’t a constant state of emotional turmoil. Emotional highs and lows increase during early adolescence and intensity of emotions may seem out of proportion. Depression is more common.

Adult and Aging Emotion Development

Effective emotional adaptation increases with emotional intelligence. Developmental changes continue through adult years. Older adults experience more positive and less negative emotions than young adults.

Different stress responses and experiences by gender?

Women are more prone to social stress and attempt to tend and befriend. Men tend to engage in fight or flight in response to social stress.

Socioeconomic Selectivity Theory

Becoming more selective of the people we interact with and situations we involve ourselves in.

Temperament

An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. It is the underlying theme of our behavior. Chess and Thomas propose three types/clusters.

What are the three types of temperaments?

Easy temperament is when they adapt easily to new situations, emotions are less intense and fade quickly, easygoing (40%). Difficult temperament is when they are unhappy often, slow to accept change, cry often, hard to soothe, and have more intense and frequent emotions (10%). Slow to warm temperament is when they have low intensity moods, need more time for adjustment, and are somewhat negative (15%). The remaining 35% didn’t fit neatly into a category.

What influences temperament?

Physiological characteristics (brain areas vary in activity, stable vitals), parental reactions based on gender and culture, and goodness of fit (match between child’s temperament and environmental stresses).

Infancy and Childhood Attachment and Love

Babies are socially oriented. Face to face play, motivation for movement, cooperation, intentionality, and social referencing are examples of social interactions.

Attachment

A close emotional bond between two people, establishing a secure base.

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory for Infants

First 2 months, we attach to any human. 2-7 months, we attach to caregivers. Up until 2 years, we specify who is most important. After 2 years, we become more aware of our attachments.

Strange Situation Study

1-2 year olds react when a stranger enters the room while mom is there, then mom leaves them alone with stranger, then mom returns, and the process happens again. How Ainsworth determined 4 attachment styles.

Ainsworth’s 4 Attachment Styles Reaction to Strange Situation Study

Secure attachment is when the infant greets parents with positive emotions. Insecure avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids the caregiver and wasn’t bothered when the parent left. Insecure ambivalent attachment is when the infant alternates between clinging/seeking comfort to being inconsolable and angry that the parent left. Disorganized attachment is when the infant is confused/disoriented.

What attachment style are most kids labeled as having?

Secure attachment

Middle/Late Childhood Attachment

Attachment becomes more sophisticated and includes more people with age as we spend more time away from caregivers. Secure attachment is linked to lower levels of internalized symptoms, depression, and anxiety, high levels of emotional regulation, and less difficulty identifying emotion.

3 Common Dating Stages in Adolescence

11-13 years old: entry into romantic attractions and affiliations. 14-16 years old: exploring romantic relationships. 17-19 years old: consolidating dyadic romantic bonds, more serious and substantial.

What is early dating/relationships linked to?

Social acceptance, friendship and romantic competence, increased substance use, delinquency, sexual behavior, teen pregnancy, and depression.

Adult Attachment and Love

Adults count on romantic partners to be a secure base in stressful times, similar to children with their parents. Older adults have fewer attachment relationships and attachment anxiety decreases.

What are the adult attachment styles?

Secure is when they’re confident in themselves and the relationship, and are good at managing emotions. Avoidant is when they’re hesitant to initiate and pull back from the relationship. Anxious is when they’re less trusting, more emotional, and demand closeness.

Romantic Love

Strong components of sexuality and infatuation. Often predominates in the early part of a love relationship. Can take place in person and over the internet.

Affectionate Love

Desire to have the other person near and a deep, caring affection for them.

Romantic/Affectionate Love in Adulthood

As love matures, passion often gives way to affection. In early adulthood, communication and physical attraction feel more important. In middle/late adulthood, emotional security and closeness feel more important.

Self Understanding

Cognitive representation of self. Appears as early as 3 months old, mirror technique is used to test self recognition. Self recognition appears between 15-18 months. Self conscious awareness of body develops by the second year.

Self Understanding in Early Childhood

Characteristics of self include concrete, physical, and active descriptions. Includes positive overestimations. At 4-5 years, children begin describing themselves and perceiving others in terms of psychological traits. Social interactions and relationships increase understanding of self and others.

Self Understanding in Middle/Late Childhood

Self understanding becomes more complex. They describe themselves via psychological traits (happy, upset, okay). They include social references in descriptions (groups, friends, culture, religion). Can distinguish between real and ideal selves (begin to see the gap). Self evaluations become more realistic, begin including comparisons.

Perspective Taking

See and interpret situations from others’ perspectives and realize different opinions/views are okay.

Self Understanding Adolescence and Adulthood

In adolescence, thinking occurs in abstract and idealistic ways. Becoming increasingly self conscious and aware of contradictions between selves. During adulthood, self awareness becomes important early due to lots of changes. They describe fewer possible selves and portray themselves in more realistic ways.

Erikson’s Contemporary Views of Identity

Identity is multifaceted (culture, religion, education, athleticism). Identity vs role confusion occurs during adolescence when we’re faced with deciding who we are, what we are all about, and where we’re going in life. Identity development is a lengthy and gradual process, less of a crisis, more questioning and thinking.

Identity Crisis

A period of identity development where the person explores alternatives, what is the purpose of what they’re doing.

Identity Commitment

A personal investment in identity, they know where they’re going and what they plan on doing.

Statuses of Identity from Marcia

Identity achievement is when a person has been through a crisis and commitment. Identity moratorium is when a person has committed, but not had a crisis. Identity foreclosure is when a person is in a crisis, but has not committed. Identity diffusion is when a person has not been through a crisis or commitment.

Changes in Identity Over Time

Adolescents are primarily in diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium. Key changes in identity take place in emerging adulthood, not adolescence. Identity doesn’t necessarily remain stable through life cycles. The MAMA cycle is when people move between moratorium and achievement. Most people become more certain about their identity with age.

Self Esteem

An individual’s subjective, overall evaluation of their own worth, value, or goodness. Includes cognitive beliefs and emotional feelings about self.

Self Concept

The comprehensive and evolving collection of beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions an individual has about themselves. Includes personal, social, and physical characteristics.

Self Awareness

The conscious knowledge of one’s internal states (thoughts, emotions, beliefs, motivations) and understanding how these affect behavior and interactions with others.

Trait Theory

Personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses. Every person possesses each trait, most are very low, but the ones that direct us and impact us most are central to personality. A major trait theory is the big five factors of personality.

Big Five Factors of Personality

Openness to Experience: independent or conforming, imaginative or practical, interested in variety or routine. Conscientious: organized or disorganized, careful or careless, disciplined or impulsive. Extraversion: sociable or retiring, fun loving or somber, affectionate or reserved. Agreeableness: softhearted or ruthless, trusting or suspicious, helpful or uncooperative. Neuroticism: calm or anxious, secure or insecure, self satisfied or self pitying.

Stage Crisis View

Levinson identity development suggests that at the end of teen years, identity transitions from dependence to independence. Through 20s, determination of goals is important and primary. In 30s, focus turns to building a career and starting a family, as well as becoming our own person. By 40, we should have a stable career and midlife crisis begins. From 40-45, we have to come to terms with key conflicts. Includes being young vs old, being constructive vs destructive, masculine vs feminine, and being attached to others vs being separated. These are true for all genders, they must deal with crises to move on.

Stability and Change of Personality

Personality traits continue to change during the adult years, mostly during early adulthood. More stability is shown in personality traits after midlife. Personality changes in adulthood are positive and socially mature. Become more confident, warm, calm, and responsible.

Gender

Mosaic of characteristics related to femininity and masculinity.

Gender Identity

Sense of one’s own gender.

Gender Roles

Sets of expectations that prescribe how to think, act, and feel according to gender.

Gender Typing

Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Biological Influences on Gender

Gender is most influenced by two classes of sex hormones. Estrogen is related to breast tissue, periods, and fat on hips. Androgens are related to building muscle, testes and penis, and facial hair. Everyone has both sex hormones, but amount depends on biological sex. Unusual sex hormones can be problematic, causing intersexuality or other reproductive issues. Natural selection favors short term mating strategies in males and long term strategies in females.

Gender Stereotyping

General impressions and beliefs about girls/women and boys/men. Still present in today’s world, in the lives of both children and adults. Boys gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls.

Gender Controversy and Contex

Gender differences may be exaggerated. Largest differences appear in motor skills, sexuality, and physical aggression. Traditional gender roles continue to guide behavior. Many Western cultures today are more flexible about gender behavior, allowing more diversity.

Childhood Gender Development

Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization. Social cost of deviating is higher for boys. Flexibility in gender roles applies more for girls. Instrumental, masculine traits may be evolving into a new norm for everyone.

Adolescence Gender Development

Gender roles change at the onset of puberty. Extreme gender-typed behaviors are linked to low school engagement and attachment for both sexes.

Women’s Gender Development

Rapport talk (relationship), place a high value on relationships and focus on nurturing connections. It’s important to maintain relationship competency and be self motivated.

Men’s Gender Development

Report talk (straight to the point), experience stress when violating roles. Men’s roles can cause considerable strain in terms of health and relationships.

Exploring Sexuality

Human sexual behavior is individualized despite the role of hormones. Sexual scripts are stereotyped patterns of expectations for how people should behave sexually. Traditional religious script involves a man and a woman only after marriage. Romantic script involves showing love in ways that make sense. Sexual orientation is determined by genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors. Cannot be “talked” out of it.

Sexuality in Childhood

Majority of children engage in some sex play, usually with friends or siblings. Curiosity about sex remains high throughout elementary school. Children may ask about reproduction and sexuality.

Sexuality in Adolescence

Time of sexual exploration and experimentation. Sexual fantasies and realities, incorporating sexuality into identity, and periods of vulnerability and confusion. In the US, children and adolescents learn a great deal about sex from the media, like porn and sexting. Sexual identity is influenced by social norms related to sex. Ages of sexual initiation vary across ethnic groups, gender, and socioeconomic factors. Many aren’t emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences. 48.2% of US adolescents don’t use contraception consistently.

Sexuality in Emerging Adulthood

At the beginning of adulthood, over 60% of individuals have experienced sexual intercourse and most have by the end. Most emerging adults are sexually active and unmarried. Marriage age is increasing. Casual sex and friends with benefits are becoming more common as it’s talked about more along with resources like tinder.

Adult Sexual Development and Aging

In middle adulthood, sexual activity decreases (children around, hormone changes, health, career). Chronic health disorders and injuries become more common as we age. In late adulthood, many have sexual desires and are sexually active if they are healthy. Main factor is having an accessible and willing partner. Orgasms become less frequent in males.

Moral Development

Changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong. Consider cognitive, emotional, personality, and identity development. Intrapersonal morality is how we view ourselves when alone. Interpersonal morality is our sense of right and wrong when around others.

Moral Thought and Piaget

At 4-7 years, we have heteronomous morality, which is when justice and rules are unchangeable. Behavior is judged by the consequences, not intention. Children believe in immanent justice, which is the idea that if someone does wrong, a punishment will immediately occur. At 10 or older, autonomous morality is the idea that rules and laws are created by people with more flexibility. Considers both intentions and consequences of behavior.

Moral Thought and Kohlberg

Proposed three levels of moral development, with two stages in each. Developed through interviews with children responding to moral dilemmas. Critical components include taking the perspective of others, experiencing conflict, and interactions. We need conflict to prompt us to make change and look at other perspectives. Described his theory of moral development as a ladder, start low and build up to higher, more sophisticated levels. Not widely accepted.

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development

Preconventional Morality: 9 or younger, obey rules to avoid punishment or gain reward (shouldn’t because he’ll go to jail or should because he’ll be happy). Conventional Morality: early adolescence, uphold laws for social approval or social order (should take punishment or shouldn’t because it’s illegal). Postconventional Morality: early adulthood and beyond, actions based on self defined rights and ethics, develop our personal moral code (shouldn’t because others may need the drug or should because his wife is more important than drs profit).

Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory

Ethical thought and moral behavior aren’t the same, we may not act in a situation how we think we will. Carol Gilligan didn’t think Kohlberg’s theory represented morality of women. Higher stages were biased towards Western values. Justice perspective is right vs wrong and care perspective is concerned with connectedness and the betterment of others.

Moral Behavior

Affected by reinforcement, punishment, and imitation. We try to act like people we look up to. Effectiveness depends on consistency and timing (more likely if rewarded/punished consistently and immediately), characteristics of models (not just closeness, but how they act), and cognitive skills of observer (ability to see similar situations and consider them for us). Behavior is situationally dependent.

Empathy

The ability of perspective taking and discerning the inner psychological states of others. In infancy, we experience global empathy because we can’t distinguish our needs and feelings from others. In early childhood, we begin to respond appropriately to other’s distress and understand variation in responses. In adolescence, it’s characterized by positive attitudes towards others, trust, forgiveness, and openness to experience. Sets the stage for more advanced empathy.

Family and Parental Contributions to Morality Development

When parents and siblings teach us about morality. Quality of parental relationships affects morality. A non-confrontational approach and explaining process can lead to higher levels of morality. Talking out difficult situations is beneficial. Includes proactive strategies and conversational dialogue.

School and Morality Development

Hidden curriculum is the general atmosphere of a school, telling us how to act. Character education (trustworthy, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, citizenship) is often included. Service learning is when schools benefit others and society through service. Children who experience service learning are more motivated to help others and less self centered. We hone our character building by choosing how we serve.

Culture and Morality Development

Westernized educated industrialized rich democratized (WEIRD vs non-WEIRD). USA and many European cultures are considered WEIRD. Independence and focus on self is prominent in WEIRD cultures. In non-WEIRD cultures, more collective ideals are prominent.

Religion

Organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols. Increases one’s connection to a sacred/transcendent other.

Religiousness

Degree of affiliation we feel with organized religion, participation in rituals/practices, connection with beliefs, and involvement in community.

Spirituality

Experiencing something beyond self in a transcendent manner. Living in a way that benefits others.

Religious Development

As children, we tend to adopt the religious teachings of our families, especially parents. Religious interest among adolescents has declined in the 21st century. Emerging adults in less developed countries are more likely to be religious. 70% of US individuals consider themselves religious and/or spiritual. American society is becoming more secular.

Benefits of Religion

Religion is linked with life satisfaction and well being for older adults. Serves psychological and social needs. Facing impeding death and inevitable losses as we age, finding and maintaining a sense of meaning in life, and provides social activities and support.