Communication Processes, Organizational Hierarchies, and Conflict Resolution in Business

Flow of the Communication Process

Written or spoken orders. Process that is the passage of info between one person or group to another person or group

Noise

Physical or psychological distractions that disrupt the effective flow of communication

Source Factors

Characteristics of the sender that influence the effectiveness of a communication

Channel Factors

Characteristics of the vehicle of transmission of a message that affect communication

Audience Factors

Characteristics of the receiver that influence the effectiveness of a communication

Nonverbal Communication

Messages sent and received through means other than the spoken or written word

Pygmalion Effect

When a sender nonverbally communicates expectations to a receiver influencing his or her behavior

Downward Communication

Messages flowing downward in an organizational hierarchy, usually from superiors to subordinates

Upward Communication

Messages flowing upward in an organizational hierarchy, usually taking the form of feedback

Lateral Communication

Messages between two parties at the same level in an organizational hierarchy

Filtering

The selective presentation of the content of a communication

Exaggeration

Distortion of info by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing parts of the message

MUM Effect

A potential sender may not forward a message when it involves bad news

The chain

A status hierarchy where a message originates at the top or bottom of the chain, and it must pass through each link

The Y

A hierarchy representing different level of status, with the last link involving communication to more than one person

The wheel

A higher-status and a lower-level members; the higher-status member is the hub, through which all communication must pass (there is no direct communication between lower-status members)

The circle

Communication occurring between members who are immediately accessible to one another (each member can communicate with any or all other members)

The All-channel

Complete freedom among communication links (each member can communicate with any or all other members)

Grapevine

A diagram of an organization's hierarchy representing the formal lines of communication

Rumors

Information that is presented as fact, but which may usually be true or false

Communication Outcomes

Many organizations can benefit from greater amounts of communication, as well as making them more accurate and effective

Blocker

Tries to block all group actions and refuses to go along with group

Initiator

Recommends new ideas about, or novel solutions to, a problem

Coordinator

Integrates info from the group

Elaborator

Clarifies and expands on the points made by others

Role ambiguity

Sense of uncertainty over the requirements of a particular role

Role conflict

Conflict that results when the expectations associated with one role interfere with the expectations concerning another role

Norms

Rules that groups adopt governing appropriate and inappropriate behavior for members

Organizational socialization

The process by which new employees learn group roles and norms and develop specific work skills and abilities

Group conformity

The process of adhering to group norms

Cohesiveness

The degree of attraction among group members

We-They feeling

Intragroup cohesiveness created by the existence of a common threat, which is typically another group

Group efficacy

A group's shared belief that they can attain organizational outcomes

Social loafing

The phenomenon whereby individuals working in groups exert less effort than when working alone

Competition

The process whereby group members are pitted against one another to achieve individual goals

Cooperation

Process whereby group members help each other to achieve organizational or individual goals

Inter-individual conflict

Conflict between two people

Intra-individual conflict

Individual facing with two incompatible goals

Inter-group conflict

Between two groups trying to attain their respective goals

Intra-group conflict

Occurs between one person or faction within a group and the other band members

Dominating

Conflict resolution strategy of persisting in a conflict until one party attains personal goals at the expense of the other's

Accommodation

A conflict resolution strategy of making a sacrifice to resolve a conflict

Compromise

A conflict resolution strategy in which both parties give up some part of their goals

Collaboration

A conflict resolution strategy in which the parties cooperate to reach a solution that satisfies both

Avoidance

Withdrawing from or avoiding a conflict situation

Autocratic decision making

A process by which group decisions are made by the leader alone, based on information the leader possesses

Democratic decision making

A strategy by which decisions are made by the group members based on majority rule voting

Consensus

Decision making based on 100% member agreement

Consultative decision making

Leader solicits inputs from group members but still holds the final say, which leads to higher quality decision

Groupthink

Syndrome characterized by a concurrence-seeking tendency that overrides the ability of a cohesive group to make critical decisions

Group polarization

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by individuals

Universalist Theory

Theories that look for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders

Behavioral Theories

Theories derived from studies at Ohio state and University of Michigan that focus on the behaviors common to effective leaders

Contingency Theory

Emphasizes the interaction of characteristics of both the leader and situation

Great Man/Woman Theory

A universalist theory of leadership that maintains that great leaders are born, not made

Trait Theory

Attempts to discover the traits shared by all effective leaders

The Ohio State leadership studies

Studied the behaviors exhibited by effective leaders into initiating structure and consideration

Initializing Structure

Leader behaviors that define, organize, and structure the work situation

Consideration

Leader behaviors that show a concern for the feeling, attitudes, and needs of followers

The University of Michigan Leadership Studies

Studied the behaviors exhibited by effective leaders into task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors

Task-orientated behaviors

Leader behaviors focused on the work task

Relationship-Orientated Behaviors

Leader behaviors focused on maintaining interpersonal relationships on the job

Fiedler's contingency model

Leadership theory that maintains that effective leadership depends on a match between the leader's style and the degree to which the work situation gives control and influence to the leader

The path-goal theory

States that a leader's job is to help the work group achieve their desired goals

The decision-making model

Theory that matches characteristics of the situation with leader decision-making strategies

The leader-member exchange (LMX) model

A theory that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between the leader and particular group members

Charismatic Leadership

States that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired

Transformational Leadership

Focuses on the leader's ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future of the work group

Influence

The ability to use social forces to affect the behavior of others

Power

The use of some aspect of a work relationship to compel another to perform a certain action despite resistance

Organizational politics

Self-serving actions designed to affect the behavior of others to achieve personal goals

Ingratiation

Influencing others by increasing one's personal appeal to them

Assertiveness

Making orders or demands, setting deadlines and making sure they are met, emphasizing rules that require compliance

Sanctions

Withholding salary increases, threatening to fire someone or to give a poor performance evaluation, promising or giving a salary increase

Rational Persuasion

Using logic to convince someone else, writing a detailed justification of a plan, presenting info to support a request along with the request

Exchanges

Offering exchange of favors, reminding another of past favors, offering to make some personal sacrifice in exchange for a favor

Upward Appeals

Obtaining support of superiors, sending the target person to see superiors, filing a report about target person to superiors

Blocking

Threatening to stop working with the other person, ignoring the other person or withdrawing friendship, engaging in a work slowdown

Coalitions

Obtaining coworkers' support of a request, making a request at a formal conference, obtaining subordinates' support of a request

Coercive Power

The use of punishment or the threat of punishment to affect the behaviors of others

Reward Power

Power that results from having the ability to offer something positive, such as money or praise

Legitimate Power

The formal rights or authority accompanying a position in an organization

Expert Power

Power derived from having certain work-related knowledge or skill

Referent Power

Power resulting from the fact that an individual is respected, admired and liked by others

Power Bases

Sources of power possessed by individuals in organizations. They can also take many forms and arise from many sources, and can also be used by supervisors. Expert = performance; Referent = Satisfaction; Coercive = decreases job satisfaction

Ideal Power bases for leadership

Ideally, leaders would possess all five forms of power - legitimate, reward, coercive, referent, and expert.

Ways to Increase Power

Developing expertise, Forming relationships with higher-status members, Forming coalitions

Causes of organizational politics

Competition for power and resources, Subjective performance appraisals, Delay in the measurement of work outcomes, Compensation for inadequacies, Lack of cooperation and interdependence, Increased group decision-making

Strategies for managing organizational politics

Remove ambiguity and uncertainty, Provide 'slack' resources, Create a positive organizational climate, Clarify personnel selection and appraisal processes; Reward performance, not politics

Name and explain three barriers to effective communication.

Filtering - the selective presentation of the content of a communication

MUM Effect - A potential sender may not forward a message when it involves bad news

Exaggeration - the distortion of info by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing parts of the message

Identify and describe the three directions in which organizational communication can flow. For each direction, state the typical form it takes.

Downward Communication - Messages flowing downward in an organizational hierarchy, usually from superiors to subordinates. The form it takes is from superiors to subordinates

Upward Communication - messages flowing upward in an organizational hierarchy, usually taking the form of feedback. The form it takes is from subordinates to supervisors

Lateral Communication - messages between two parties at the same level in an organizational hierarchy. Form is from two parties at the same level

Explain how group cohesiveness can both help and hinder goal achievement in work groups. Include at least two related psychological concepts.

Cohesiveness can both help goal achievement because job complexity and autonomy influence cohesiveness. It can help goal achievement because of group efficacy, which is a group's shared belief that they can achieve organizational outcomes - which improves job satisfaction and helps goal achievement. A way it can hinder goal achievement is by strong cohesiveness, which can produce the "we-they feeling" - a source of conflict, hindering group performance.

List and explain the four levels of conflict that occur in work groups.

Inter-individual - Conflict between two people

Intra-individual - individual facing with two incompatible goals

Inter-group - Between two groups trying to attain their respective goals

Intra-group conflict - occurs between one person or faction within a group and the other band members

Define the five individual conflict-resolution strategies (e.g., dominating).

Dominating - conflict resolution strategy of persisting in a conflict until one party attains personal goals at the expense of the other's

Accommodation - a conflict resolution strategy of making a sacrifice to resolve a conflict

Compromise - a conflict resolution strategy in which both parties give up some part of their goals

Collaboration - a conflict resolution strategy in which the parties cooperate to reach a solution that satisfies both

Avoidance - withdrawing from or avoiding a conflict situation

Describe Fiedler's contingency model, including its three situational characteristics and the two leadership behaviors.

Leadership theory that maintains that effective leadership depends on a match between the leader's style and the degree to which the work situation gives control and influence to the leader. Three characteristics are Leader-Member Relations, Task Structure, and Position Power. Two leadership behaviors are task-oriented and relationship-oriented.

Name and describe the four categories of leader behavior described in the path- goal theory.

Directive - provides instructions and suggestions for job performance; effective when employees are inexperienced, or task is complex

Achievement-Oriented Behavior - Set challenging goals and focus on achieving specific work outcomes; effective when employees are high-ability, motivated, or high achievers, or the task is clearly defined

Supportive behavior - Shows concern for workers' well-being; work is stressful, frustrating, or emotionally demanding. When a task is routine/easy

Participative behavior - Encourages members to take an active role in planning and decision-making; effective when team members are knowledged and experienced

Name and describe five of the eight influence tactics.

Ingratiation - influencing others by increasing one's personal appeal to them

Assertiveness - Making orders or demands, setting deadlines and making sure they are met, emphasizing rules that require compliance

Sanctions - Withholding salary increases, threatening to fire someone or to give a poor performance evaluation, promising or giving a salary increase

Rational Persuasion - Using logic to convince someone else, writing a detailed justification of a plan, presenting info to support a request along with the request

Exchanges - Offering exchange of favors, reminding another of past favors, offering to make some personal sacrifice in exchange for a favor

Name and describe the five power bases.

Coercive Power - the use of punishment or the threat of punishment to affect the behaviors of others

Reward Power - power that results from having the ability to offer something positive, such as money or praise

Legitimate Power - the formal rights or authority accompanying a position in an organization

Expert Power - power derived from having certain work-related knowledge or skill

Referent power - power resulting from the fact that an individual is respected, admired and liked by others

Outline three strategies individuals can use to increase their power in organizations.

Developing expertise, Forming relationships with higher-status members, Forming coalitions