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Scientific method steps
make observation
hypothesis
consult prior knowledge (research)
formulate hypothesis
collect & interpret data
consult prior knowledge
draw conclusions
peer review
publish
Scientific method simple
observe
hypothesis
experiment
results
Hypothesis
an explanation based on observations and assumptions that leads to a testable prediction
experiment
a scientific test, carried out under controlled conditions
Independent variable
a factor that is manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on a dependent variable.
Dependent variable
a factor that is measured in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.
Treatment group
a group of subjects in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing for comparison with a control group.
control group
receive either no treatment or standard treatment (effects already known), or a placebo
Inheritance
How traits are passed from parents to offspring through genetic transmission and alleles.
Blending inheritance
The genetic material from 2 parents blends together
leads to a loss of variation
Particulate inheritance
when parents pass on discrete heritable units
gregor mendel —> proved through observing peas
true breeding
plants that produce offspring identical to themselves when self-pollinated.
alleles
alternative versions of genes
genotype
genetic makeup
all genes in an individual
phenotype
physical characteristics
Homozygote
2 alleles that are the same
heterozygote
2 alleles are different
Trait
specific thing (red or white)
Dominant allele
fully expressed in organisms phenotype
recessive allele
has no noticeable effect on phenotype
Gamete
haploid reproductive cell: egg or sperm that is formed by meiosis
Locus (loci)
position along chromosome
segregate
separate by some factor
gene
a portion of DNA whose sequence of nucleotides codes for a protein
DNA
a molecule composed of 2 strands of nucleotides that are wound together into a double helix
Chromosome
single molecule of DNA wrapped around protein
23 pairs
23 pair is sex chromosomes
Gene
a portion of DNA whose sequence of nucleotides codes for a protein (trait)
zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.
Heritable trait
variant for a character that has a genetic component and can be passed from one generation to the next parent to offspring
punnet square
most likely expected outcome of a cross
multiplication rule
each square has a 25% probability ½ x ½ = ¼
addition rule
¼ aA + ¼ Aa = ½ heterozygous
monohybrid
homozygous parents (one fully dominate and fully recessive) having heterozygous children
Complete dominance
occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and homozygote dominant are identical
dominant will be expressed
incomplete dominance
the phenotype of F1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotype of the 2 parental varieties
in between
e.g. wavy hair
codominance
2 alleles affect the phenotype in separate distinguishable ways
both colors are expressed
e.g cows
antigen
protein that can trigger an immune response
A, B, AB
Epistasis
2 or more genes that affect the phenotype of another gene
e.g. labs
Polygenic inheritance
multiple genes independently affect the single trait
multiple genes determine 1 trait \
just genes
e.g.
phenotypic plasticity
how an organism phenotype changes in response to an environment
genetics are there but are dependent on the environment to be expressed
multifactorial traits
depends on both genes and environment influences
e.g. skin color (tanning)
autosomes
chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes
1-22 chromosome
Sex chromosomes
female—> XX
male —> XY
pair 23rd
Hemophilia
causes uncontrolled bleeding
alleles for gene encoding blood clotting
Mutation
permanent change in DNA sequence in the nucleotide
has to be different from what was already there
e.g. att—> atg
mutant
an individual whose genome contains a mutation in a gene or genes
