English test

Epistemology

the theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope

2 ways to express Epistemology

Qualitative and Quantitative

Qualitative research

using stories

Quantitative research

using facts and statistics

3 types of arguments:

Rogerian, Toulmin, and Classical

What parts does The Classical Argument use?

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Modes of persuasion

Ethos, pathos, logos

Ethos

credibility, authority, reliability

Pathos

emotion, imagination, sympathy

Logos

logic, reason, rationality

Ethos (credibility) convincing by the character of the author.

We tend to believe people whom we respect

Pathos (emotional) appealing to the reader’s emotions

qualitative

Logos (logical) persuading by the use of reasoning

quantitative

what are the five parts of the classical argument?

Introduction, Confirmation, Concession, Refutation, Conclusion

The classical argument 1.

begins in an interesting way. It provides background or context that was relevant to the specific audience

The classical argument 2.

It states claims and evidence clearly and emphatically

The classical argument 3.

It takes account of opposing viewpoints and anticipants objections

The classical argument 4.

It concludes in a satisfying and effective way

Toulmin Argument

Toulmin arguments are practical and work well with common, everyday situations

Rogerian Agrumentation

Emphasizes a “You win and I win too” solution, one where negotiation and mutual respect are valued

In exploring this common ground, the writer tries to state the audience’s side of the issue fairly and objectively, so that the audience realizes the writer is treating it with respect.

Propaganda

a method and approach used to spread ideas that further a political, commercial, religious, or civil cause

What are propagandas used for?

To manipulate the readers’ or viewers’ reason and emotions; to persuade them to believe in something or someone, buy an item, or vote a certain way.

What are the types persuasive techniques used in propaganda:

• appeals to association

• appeal to values

• emotional appeals

• word choice

• others 5

Appeals to Association

a. Bandwagon Appeal: taps into people’s desire to belong

b. Snob Appeal: taps into people’s needs to feel superior to others

c. Testimonials:relies on the backing of a celebrity, an expert, or a satisfied customer

d. Transfer: connects a product, a candidate, or a cause with a positive image or idea

Appeal to values

a. Ethical Appeal: tries to gain moral support for a claim by linking the claim to a widely accepted value

b. Either/ or fallacy: This technique is also called “black-and-white thinking” because only two choices are given. You are either for something or against it; there is no middle ground or shades of gray. It is used to polarize issues, and negates all attempts to find common ground

Emotional appeals

a. appeal to fear: makes people feel as if their safety, security, or health is in danger

Ex. Immigration conversation and school shootings

b. appeal to pity: taps into people’s compassion for others

Word choice

a. Loaded language: uses words with strongly positive or negative connotations (meanings) to stir people’s emotions

b. Glittering Generalities: This technique uses important-sounding “glad words” that have little or no real meaning. These words are used in general statements that cannot be proved or disproved. Words like “good,” “honest,” “fair,” and “best” are examples of “glad” words

Trump- “terrific”

Card stacking: This term comes from stacking a deck of cards in your favor. Card stacking is used to slant a message. key words or unfavorable statistics may be omitted in an ad or commercial, leading to a series of half-truths. keep in mind that an advertiser is under no obligation to ”to give the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.”

Ex. Coke spent 100 million dollars to research how bad saturated fat and salt was for the heart, ignoring the real problem (sugar) for their own interests

Ohers

a. Name calling: (ad Hominem) This technique consists of attaching a negative label to a person or a thing. People engage in this type of behavior when they are trying to avoid supporting their own opinion with facts. Rather than explain what they believe in, they prefer to try to tear their opponent down

You recite facts about a culture, religion, or gender and are called a racist or bigot

b. False Analogy: In this technique, two things that may or may not really be similar are portrayed as being similar. When examining the comparison, you must ask yourself how similar the items are. In most false analogies, there is simply not enough evidence available to support the comparison

Ex. Failing to tipa waitress is like stealing money out of someone’s wallet