Comparative Politics Final Review

Policy Cycle: Step #1

Agenda Setting

• Identifying a public issue 

• Primary Actors: Legislatures, Executives, Bureaucracies, Mass Media, Interest Groups

Policy Cycle: Step #2

Policy Formulation

• Brainstorming Ideas For the Problem

• The definition, discussion, acceptance, or rejection of feasible courses of action for coping with policy problems.

• Primary Actors: Legislatures, Executives, Bureaucracies, Experts

Policy Cycle: Step #3

Policy Adoption

• Policy Acception

• Primary Actors: Legislatures, Executives

Policy Cycle: Step #4

Implementation

• The conversion of new laws and programs into practice. 

• Primary Actors: Bureaucracies

Policy Cycle: Step #5

Evaluation

• Procedure asking whether the output of a given public policy has attained the intended goals. 

• Primary Actors: Experts

Promotional Interest Groups

A group of organized citizens whose primary purpose is to affect the policies of the state.

• Promotional Interest Groups include ethnic, religious, foreign policy, recreational, and environmental advocacy organizations. 

• Ex: NRA, PETA, NAACP

Sectoral Interest Groups

Groups representing a sector of the economy. 

• Includes Trade Unions, Professional Associations, and Corporations.

• Ex: UCW-CWA (United Campus Workers, Communications Workers of America)

Institutional Interest Groups

A group that is initially organized for some purpose other than political activity but becomes politically active to defend its interest in the policy decisions of the state.

• Institutional interest groups include humanitarian, educational, and security organizations. 

• Ex: American Red Cross

One-Party Systems

A “party system” in which only a single political party is allowed to be active. 

• Extremely low plurality

• Ex: Totalitarian states → China

Dominant Party System

One large party with an absolute majority of votes and seats.

• No other party is approaching 80%.

• No alternation

• One-party system 

• Ex: Illiberal Democracies → Japan & India

Two-Party System

Two large parties sharing together around 80% of votes and seats.

• Roughly balanced with one of the two reaching 50% of seats.

• Alternation between parties. 

• One-party government. (Difference is the alternation between one-party and another)

• Examples: Liberal Democracies (With single-member plurality electoral systems) → United States

Multi-Party Systems

Several or many parties, none approaching 50% of votes and seats.

• Parties of different sizes.

• Parties run for elections individually and form coalitions after elections. 

• Alternation through coalition changes. 

• Coalition government. 

• Ex: Liberal Democracies (w/ PR electoral systems) → Netherlands

Bipolar System

Two large coalitions composed of several parties sharing together around 80% of votes and seats.

• Coalitions are roughly balanced 

• Coalitions are stable over time and run elections as electoral alliances.

• Alternation between coalitions. 

• Coalition government 

• Ex: Liberal Democracies (w/ PR electoral systems) → Germany

Regulatory Policies

Policies specifying conditions and constraints for individual or collective behavior.

Ex: Environmental Protection; Migration Policy; Consumer Protection

Distributive Policies

Policies distributing new resources.

1. Ex: Agriculture; Social Issues; Public Works; Subsidies; Taxes

Redistributive Policies

Policies modifying the distribution of existing resources.

1. Ex: Land Reform; Progressive Taxation; Welfare Policy

Constituent Policies

Policies creating or modifying the states’ institutions. 

1. Ex: Changes of procedural rules of parliaments.

Democracy Assistance

• Concessionary and largely consensual provision of support for democracy and democratization from a state or international organization by way of projects or programs.

• Assistance provided by the advanced democratic regime to the democratizing regime. 

Democracy Assistance: Ex

• Ex: The EU & Democracy Assistance 

  • Copenhagen Criteria (1993)

    • Stable institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and respect for and protection of minorities.

    •  A functioning market economy and the capacity to cope with competition and market forces in the EU.

    • The ability to take on and implement effectively the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic, and monetary union.

Democracy Support

• Attempts to influence democratization by a variety of methods and approaches that can include linkage and leverage and various measures of soft and hard power. 

• Support provided by an advanced democratic regime to democratic opposition in an authoritarian regime. 

• Hard Power vs. Soft Power (Joseph Nye)

Hard Power

Military Force, Economic Coercion, Diplomatic Sanctions

Soft Power

Popular Culture, Political Values, Economic Cooperation, Aid

Passive Support for Democracy

Type of democratization influenced by external and internal forces which do not have democratic outcomes as their aim.

Active Support for Democracy

Type of democratization influenced by external and international forces which do have democratic outcomes as their aim.

Direct Support for Democracy

• Action employing political methods and engaging with political institutions. 

• Typically Hard Power strategies. (US invasion of Iraq, US Embargo Against Cuba)

Indirect Support for Democracy

• Action focusing on conditions or preconditions for democratization that may be described as non-political,

• Typically soft power strategies. (USAID, Peace Corps)

European Council

Part of Executive Branch in EU

•  The EU’s 27 national leaders. 

• Sets a policy agenda.

European Commission

Part of Executive Branch in EU

• 27 commissioners, nominated by the European Council and approved by Parliament. 

• Proposes and implements legislation

European Parliament

Part of Legislative Branch in EU

• 705 members, directly elected by EU citizens

•  Approves or rejects legislation

Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers)

Part of Legislative Branch in EU

• 27 national ministers, grouped by policy area

• Approves or rejects legislation

Court of the Justice of the European Union

Part of the EU Judicial Branch

• Two courts, with judges appointed jointly by national governments.

• Interprets EU law and settles disputes.

European Court of Auditors

Part of the EU Judicial Branch

• 27 members, appointed by the Council of Ministers

• Audits Budget

European Central Bank

EU’s Financial Services

• President and executive board appointed by the European Council. 

• Maintains the stability of the euro and oversees the European financial system.

Type of Organization That the EU is

Supernational Organization

• Power to dictate domestic policy of its members.

• Needs the contribution of every member to run.

1st Great Punctuation - Mark Blyth

Institutionalist Paradigm Fell, Sparked the Behavioralist Revolution

• Failed to predict WWI, Germany’s involvement, and Germany’s fall

2nd Great Punctuation - Mark Blyth

Behavioralist Paradigm —> Democratization & Modernization Were Undermined

• Democratization: Failed to account for democratic backsliding post-WWII

• Modernization: Failed to account for the Soviet’s Industrialization

Theories vs. Reality

Theories assume the world to be more stable and predictable than it actually is

• Theories like maps are models intended to make reality more comprehensible

• Theories are designed to reflect reality, not vice versa

Risks

Predictable —> Smoking Causes Lung Cancer

Uncertainty

Completely Unpredictable —> Cause of Alzheimer’s

Type 1 World - Mark Blyth

Risks, but No Uncertainty

(All Predictive Theories → Ideal World)

Type 2 World - Mark Blyth

Some Risk, Some Uncertainty

Society as we know it

Type 3 World - Mark Blyth

Complete Uncertainty

• (The World in the State of Nature Before Science

• Unlivable for Humans…

• Everything will be up to chance.

Globalization: 2 Definitions

• All those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single global society (Albrow). 

• The intensification of world-wide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring miles away and vice versa.

Eroding the Nation

• Suppressing distinct identities and homogenizing the world. 

Eroding the State

• Movement towards Supernationalism & New Transnational Challenges

Nation-State

A form of political organization that links together “state” and “nation”, whereby each nation should have a single state, and each state should correspond to a nation.

• (Congruence between the national community and a political state → Ideal Type)