Linguistic Anthropology

Core Linguistic Fields

Phonology

the study of the sound system of a language, including the rules that govern how sounds are organized and used to create meaning.

Morphology

the study of the structure and formation of words, including how morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) combine to create words.

Syntax

the study of how words and phrases are arranged to form sentences; the rules governing sentence structure.

Semantics

the branch of linguistics concerned with meaning; how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning.

Pragmatics

the study of how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication.

Functions of Language

Multifunctionality (of language)

the concept that a single utterance can serve multiple communicative purposes (e.g., informative, expressive, social) simultaneously.

Expressive function

when language conveys the speaker’s emotions, attitudes, or internal states.

Conative function

language directed toward the addressee, aiming to influence, persuade, or prompt action.

Referential function

language used to convey factual information or describe things, people, or events.

Poetic function

when the focus is on the form or aesthetic qualities of the message itself (e.g., rhyme, rhythm, style).

Phatic function

language used to establish or maintain social relationships rather than to exchange information (e.g., small talk, greetings).

Metalinguistic function

language used to discuss or clarify aspects of language itself (e.g., “What does that word mean?”).

Language, Society, and Meaning

Referentialism

the theory that the meaning of a word is the object or concept it refers to in the world.

Language ideologies

culturally shaped beliefs and assumptions about language and its speakers, which often reflect and reinforce power relations.

Practice theory

a framework emphasizing how social structures and individual actions (practices) continually shape and reproduce one another.

Indexicality

the property of linguistic forms to point to (or “index”) aspects of the social or physical context, such as identity, place, or situation.

Index

a sign whose meaning depends on its context or points to something (e.g., “here,” “now,” “you”).

Multimodality / multimodal discourse

the study of how communication uses multiple modes (text, sound, gesture, image, etc.) to convey meaning.

Double-voiced discourse

when an utterance carries both the speaker’s own perspective and another’s (e.g., irony, parody, reported speech).

Interaction and Communication

Participation framework

the roles and relationships among participants in a communicative event, including who is speaking, listening, or overhearing.

Animator

the person who physically produces the utterance (the “speaker’s voice”).

Author

the person who composed or selected the words being spoken.

Principal

the individual or entity whose beliefs, opinions, or position the speech represents.

Change/shift in footing

a change in a speaker’s alignment or stance toward the ongoing interaction (e.g., switching tone, role, or level of formality).

Conversation analysis

the systematic study of the organization and structure of talk-in-interaction, focusing on turn-taking, repair, and sequencing.

Sign languages

natural human languages that use visual-manual modalities (handshapes, movement, facial expressions) instead of sound to convey meaning.

Media ideologies

beliefs about how different media (e.g., texting, calling, emailing) should be used and interpreted in communication.

Research Methods in Linguistic Anthropology

Participant observation

a research method involving immersion in a community to observe and participate in daily life and language use.

Interviews

a method of gathering data through structured conversation.

Structured interviews

use predetermined questions asked in a fixed order.

Semi-structured interviews

include a flexible set of guiding questions, allowing follow-ups.

Open-ended / unstructured interviews

resemble conversations, with broad prompts and participant-led discussion.

Surveys and questionnaires

written or digital tools used to collect data from larger groups about attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.

Naturally occurring conversations

recordings or observations of spontaneous, real-life talk (not staged or elicited).

Experimental methods

controlled studies designed to test specific linguistic or cognitive hypotheses.

Matched guise tests

experiments where participants evaluate the same speaker using different language varieties to measure attitudes toward those varieties.

Written texts

analysis of written materials (e.g., letters, social media posts, advertisements) to study language use in context.

Research Ethics

Research ethics

the principles guiding responsible research conduct.

"Do no harm"

the ethical obligation to avoid causing physical, psychological, or social harm to participants.

"Informed consent"

participants must understand the research and voluntarily agree to participate.

Language Acquisition and Socialization

Language acquisition

the process by which humans learn to perceive, produce, and use language.

Innate capacity for language

the idea that humans are biologically predisposed to learn language.

"Language-acquisition device" (LAD)

Chomsky’s proposed mental mechanism that enables humans to acquire language naturally.

"Universal grammar" (UG)

Chomsky’s theory that all human languages share an underlying structural basis.

Language socialization

the process by which individuals learn language and cultural norms simultaneously through social interaction.

Baby talk

simplified, exaggerated speech adults use with infants to facilitate language learning

"Self-lowering" and "child-raising"

caregiver strategies where adults simplify their speech (“self-lowering”) and attribute communicative intent or competence to the child (“child-raising”).

"Language gap" programs

initiatives aimed at reducing disparities in children’s language exposure and development.

Bilingual language socialization

the process of learning and using two (or more) languages within specific cultural and social contexts.

Language socialization throughout the lifespan

recognizes that language learning and social adaptation continue beyond childhood.

Language, Thought, and Culture

Linguistic relativity

the idea that language influences how people think and perceive the world.

The "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis"

the proposal that the structure of a language affects its speakers’ cognition and worldview.

Multidirectional relationship among language, thought, and culture

language, thought, and culture influence and shape each other continuously.

Effects of language on cognition ("Whorfian effects")

how linguistic categories affect memory, perception, and reasoning.

Language-in-general

refers to the human capacity for language as a universal cognitive and social phenomenon.

"Theory of mind"

the ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires) to oneself and others; crucial for understanding communication.

Linguistic Form and Function

Linguistic structures

the formal systems and patterns in language (e.g., syntax, morphology, phonology).

Semantic domains

categories of meaning that group related words (e.g., colors, kinship terms).

Grammatical categories

linguistic features such as tense, aspect, number, gender, or case that shape sentence structure and meaning.

(Habitual) language use

patterns of language that become routine in daily interaction, reflecting cultural norms.

Metaphors

figurative expressions that understand one concept in terms of another (e.g., “time is money”).

Speech act

an utterance that performs an action (e.g., promising, requesting, apologizing).

Locution

the literal act of saying something (the words themselves).

Illocution

the intended meaning or function behind the utterance (e.g., making a promise).

Perlocution

the effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g., persuading, comforting).

Speaker’s intentions

what the speaker aims to accomplish through an utterance.

Linguistic form vs. communicative function

form refers to the structure or grammar of an utterance, while function refers to its social or communicative purpose.