Unit 7 Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Motivations

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instincts

Innate, biologically determined, and unlearned patterns of behavior and responses that are characteristic of a species, and are essential for survival, adaptation, reproduction, and the fulfillment of biological needs and drives, and are genetically programmed and inherited from one generation to the next.

Drive reduction theory

A theory that the body creates a psychologically aroused state in order to motivate an organism to satisfy a physiological need (a drive)

Need

A state of deprivation or deficiency, where an individual lacks something necessary for survival, well-being, or psychological functioning, and experiences a tension or discomfort that motivates and drives behavior to satisfy and fulfill the need (causes drives)

Drive

An internal state of arousal, tension, or activation, resulting from an unmet need, and motivating and directing behavior to reduce or satisfy the need and restore a state of equilibrium, balance, or homeostasis.

Primary drives

Drives that are essential and needed biologically in order to survive, like thirst and hunger

Secondary drives

Drives that are learned, such as getting money

Homeostasis

The ability for the body to maintain a balanced internal state

Arousal theory

Behavior is motivated and directed by the level of arousal or activation in an individual, and that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease their level of arousal to achieve an optimal level of arousal and maintain a state of homeostasis, balance, and equilibrium.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The idea that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, then decreases. Too much arousal decreases a certain performance

Opponent-process theory of motivation

A theory that suggests that emotional and motivational responses to stimuli are controlled by opposing pairs of emotions, and that when one emotion is experienced, its opposite emotion is inhibited and then rebounds, leading to a series of alternating emotional and motivational responses:

Incentive theory

The idea that behavior is motivated and directed by the potential for rewards, incentives, and external stimuli, and that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that are associated with positive and rewarding outcomes and to avoid behaviors that are associated with negative and punishing outcomes.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Motivational theory that describes the hierarchical structure of human needs and the progression of needs from basic physiological needs to higher-level psychological needs and self-actualization. Has five tiers that emphasize the levels of need that a human have

Self-actualization

A need to fulfill our unique potential as a person, maybe through interactions with others

Lateral hypothalamus

A part of the brain which causes an animal to eat when stimulated

Ventromedial hypothalamus

A part of the brain which causes an animal to stop eating when they are full

Set-point theory

The idea that there is a point where your “weight” might be set by your brain, which means that you will be hungry when your weight falls below this threshold.

Bulimia

A condition where a person eats large amounts of food in a short period of time, binging, and then get rid of the food, purging, by vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxatives. Usually average of slightly above average weight

Anorexia

A condition where people starve themselves to below 85 percent of their normal body weight and refuse to eat during their weight obsession. Usually 15% below typical weight

Obesity

Abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health

Extrinsic motivators

A reward that one gets from accomplishments from outside ourselves (grade, salary)

Intrinsic motivators

Intrinsic motivators are internal factors or rewards that drive individuals to engage in a task or activity for its own sake, without the need for external rewards or incentives. (enjoyment or satisfaction)

Management theory

The collective name that theorizes managers and puts them under two categories: managers who reward and punish employees based on performance, and managers who believe that employees internally motivated to do good work

Approach-approach conflict

A conflict that takes place where an individual is confronted with having to choose between equally desirable alternatives

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A conflict that takes place where an individual is confronted with having to choose between equally unattractive alternatives

Approach-avoidance conflict

One goal has both attractive and unattractive features (ice cream when lactose intolerant)

James-Lange theory of emotion

The theory that emotional experiences are the result of physiological arousal or bodily responses to a stimulus, and that the interpretation and labeling of these bodily responses by the brain lead to the experience of emotions.

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Theory that suggests that emotional experiences and physiological arousal occur simultaneously in response to a stimulus, and that physiological arousal and emotional experience are independent and parallel processes.

Two-factor theory

Psychological theory proposed by Schacter that suggests that emotional experiences are the result of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the arousal, and that both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling are necessary for the experience of emotion

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

A biological response to prolonged stress, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion, and represents the body’s adaptive response to stress and its attempt to maintain homeostasis and cope with the stressor.

Abraham Maslow

Psychologist who created a "hierarchy of needs” that predicts which needs are most important, theory for

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Pioneering researchers in the field of human sexuality, known for their groundbreaking studies and contributions to understanding human sexual response and behavior. Came up of four stage model known as the human sexual response

William James and Carl Lange

Psychologists who came with the emotional theory that states that emotion is caused by biological changes

Walter Cannon and Philip Bard

Psychologist who came up with the emotional theory that states that an emotional stimulus triggers a response from the body and emotional reaction at the same time

Stanley Schachter

Psychologist who came up with the two-factor theory, which states that some environmental stimuli is recognized and processed by the brain, which in turn leads to a certain emotion

Hans Selye

The psychologist who came up with the most famous stress model, called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).

Garcia effect

A phenomenon in classical conditioning where an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or harmful substance, resulting in a conditioned aversion or dislike for that food or drink.

Stress

A state of mental or emotional strain or tension from demanding circumstances, or a reaction to changes in the surroundings.

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Type A

People who have high achievement, competitiveness, impatience, and tend to be more stressed

Type B

People who are easy-going, carefree, laidback, and less stressed

Freud’s psychosexual stage theory

A theory which states that people’s personality is essentially set in childhood by sexual drive, and has four stages: oral, anal, phallic and adult genital stage.

Oedipus crisis

A boy’s sexual desire toward his mother and feeling of jealousy and hatred for the rival father (bruh tf)

Unconscious

A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and memories. An information process of which we are unaware

Id

The primitive and instinctual part of the personality, operating on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires, needs, and impulses, and disregarding the reality and consequences of actions. A part of Freudian’s psychoanalytical theory

Ego

The rational and conscious part of the personality, operating on the reality principle, balancing and mediating between demands, constraints, and external environment, and managing and regulating behavior, thoughts, feelings, and personality. A part of Freudian’s psychoanalytical theory.

Superego

The moral and ethical part of the personality, representing the internalized moral standards, values, beliefs, and ideals of society, parents, and culture, and guiding and regulating behavior, thoughts, feelings, and personality based on moral, ethical, and social norms and principles. A part of Freudian’s psychoanalytical theory.

Defense mechanisms

Strategies, such as repression, denial, projection, and rationalization, to manage and cope with anxiety, conflict, and stress, and to protect the individual from experiencing and confronting unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Psychoanalytical defense to true feelings

Personal unconscious

The portion of the unconscious that contains personal memories and thoughts that a person does not want to confront. Similar to Freud’s unconscious, newer term coined by Carl Jung

Collective unconscious

The portion of the unconscious that is passed down through generations and is shared among species (ex: belief that shadow = evil). Term coined by Carl Jung

Complexes

Painful or threatening memories and thoughts that are contained within the personal unconscious

Archetypes

Universal, symbolic patterns and images that reside in the collective unconscious and are shared by all human beings, influencing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Big Five traits

An idea developed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa which combines five traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, and neuroticism) on a gradient to come up with one’s personality

Temperament

A person’s specific emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world

Somatotype theory

The idea that certain personalities were associated with each body type (fat, muscular, and thin)

Self-efficacy

The idea of a person being optimistic about their own ability to get things done

Locus of control

There are two types of this idea, that are opposites. The internal version is the idea that you are responsible everything you do, and the external version tells us that luck and outside forces control their destinies

Self-concept

The recognition and awareness of oneself as a unique and distinct individual, encompassing personal characteristics, attributes, and qualities, and one’s sense of self and identity.

Self-esteem

The evaluation, perception, and belief in one’s own worth, value, abilities, and competence, and one’s feelings of self-worth, self-confidence, and self-respect.

Unconditional positive regard

A fundamental concept in Carl Rogers’ humanistic theory of personality and psychotherapy, involves accepting and valuing an individual as a unique and valuable person, without conditions, judgments, or expectations, and respecting and accepting their thoughts, feelings, experiences, and behaviors as valid and important. Use as a supporting form of therapy

Projective tests

Tests used by psychoanalysts to assessments designed to reveal individuals' unconscious thoughts, emotions, and motivations by interpreting their responses to ambiguous stimuli, but depends a lot of the therapists interpretations when it comes to scoring

Self-report inventories

Psychological assessment tools used to measure and assess various aspects of an individual’s personality, behavior, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes, based on their self-reported responses to a series of standardized questions or statements. Generally more reliable than projective tests

Reliability

How consistent a testing is considered to be

Validity

How accurate a testing is considered to be

Sigmund Freud

Main psychoanalytical man who believed that personality was set in early childhood

Karen Horney

A neo-Freudian feminist who believed that Freud’s theory was based on the idea that that men were superior to women. Also brought forth the idea that childhood relationships and other social situations play a role in personality development

Carl Jung

Well known neo-Freudian who came up with the idea that unconscious consists of two parts: personal (personal human fears) and collective (universal human fears)

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian and ego psychologist who downplayed unconscious, and focused on the conscious role in ego. Believed that most people strive for superiority

Paul Costa

Psychologist known for developing the Five Factor Model, also known as the Big Five personality traits, a widely recognized and accepted framework for understanding and assessing personality

B. F. Skinner

A radical behaviorist who proposed that personality is a collection of learned behaviors that have been reinforced or punished over time.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who came up with the idea that personality is created by an interaction between traits, environment, and one’s behavior

Carl Rogers

Influential American psychologist known for his humanistic approach to psychology and his development of person-centered therapy. Includes unconditional positive regard and self-actualization

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of painful or distressing thoughts, feelings, memories, and experiences from conscious awareness and memory (a type of defense mechanism)

Denial

Refusal to accept or acknowledge the reality, existence, or truth of a distressing or threatening situation, event, or experience. (a type of defense mechanism)

Displacement

A form of ego defense mechanism where one shifts impulses towards a less threatening object of person (a type of defense mechanism)

Projection

Attributing and ascribing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, desires, and motivations to others, and seeing and perceiving others as possessing and displaying one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. (a type of defense mechanism)

Reaction formation

Expressing and displaying the opposite and contrary feelings, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors of one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, desires, and motivations. (a type of defense mechanism)

Regression

Reverting and returning to an earlier and more immature stage of development and functioning in response to stress, anxiety, and conflict. (a type of defense mechanism)

Rationalization

Justifying and explaining one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, desires, and behaviors through the use of logical, plausible, and socially acceptable reasons and explanations. (a type of defense mechanism)

Ghrelin

Hormone manufactured primarily by the stomach to stimulate an appetite and the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary gland

Coping

The psychological and behavioral efforts and strategies used by individuals to manage, reduce, and tolerate stress, challenges, and adversities, and to adapt and adjust to stressful and demanding situations and experiences.

Problem-Focused Coping

A situation where addressing and solving the problem or stressor directly, and taking active and practical steps to manage and resolve the stressor and the situation causing stress.

Emotional-Focused Coping

A strategy that involves managing and regulating emotional responses and reactions to stress, and using emotional and psychological strategies to reduce, alleviate, and tolerate emotional distress and discomfort caused by the stressor and the situation.

Reciprocal determinism

Concept developed by Albert Bandura, emphasizing the dynamic and bidirectional interaction and influence between behavior, personal factors (cognition, emotions, beliefs), and environmental factors; and how they shape personality