A-level geography [contemporary urban environments]

urbanisation

an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities

reasons for urban growth

natural increase, push factors, ports and trading, economy, technology changes

megacity

city areas that have a total population that is more then 10 million people

millionaire city

a city with over 1 million inhabitants

number of megacities in 2015

30

first two megacities

New York and Tokyo

expected number of megacities in 2030

41

% of the worlds population living in megacities

12%

4 stages of a megacity

immature, consolidating, maturing and established

features of an immature megacity

rapidly growing due to rural-urban migration, services cannot keep up, housing, health and population problems

features of consolidating megacities

slower growth, self help schemes for housing, water and sewage, many people work informally

features of maturing megacities

formally developed economy, well built homes, majority of people work formally, advanced services/systems, efficient management

features of established megacities

advanced and effective governance, regeneration / sustainability projects, many people in high end professional jobs, high quality of life.

world city

a city that has great influence on a global scale due to financial status and worldwide power

what are the main three world cities (+ the upcoming ones)

new York, London, Tokyo (being, Shanghai, Mumbai)

features of world cities

connections to the world, business HQs, places of innovation, networks of learning and creative hubs, cultural centres, memorable architecture.

what the GaWC ranks cities based on

accountancy, advertising, banking/finance/ law

urban form

the characteristics that go towards making up the shape and arrangement of an urban areas

physical factors affecting urban form

wet points, dry points, gap towns, resources

human factors affecting urban form

trading centres, government policy, human lifestyle

mixed use buildings

using buildings for multiple purposes. Eg, the shard. allows free flowing pedestrian access

cultural heritage quarters

revitalise areas that aim to bring people to the creative attractions

fortress developments

urban developments that have a high focus on security measures into the design of buildings and landscaping

gentrified areas

areas where people have changed who lives in the community, these ares have increasing wages and high service levels

edge cities

a concentration of businesses, shopping and entertainment outside the central business district.

postmodernism

the mixture of old where truth and meaning are made by people rather than the use of old concepts.

features of a post modern city

consumption > production

individualism

covert control

multiple sources of knowledge

breaking away from tradition

urban heat island effect

the effect that causes urban ares to be warmer than surrounding rural areas

issues with the urban heat island effect

health [heatstroke, athsma etc]

increased air pollution [photochemical smog]

stress on energy [air conditioning]

stress on water

5 methods to reduce the UHI

cool surfaces [building with higher albedo] \n green roofs \n urban greening \n sky view factor \n cool cars

how thunderstorms form in urban areas

hot air rises and as the cool air particles sink and they mix the friction causes thunder. this is more common in the summer during the evening as there is more hot air coming off buildings

how urban areas affect wind

turbulence [when air is interrupted by the friction of buildings causing changes in wind direction]

channelling [buildings force air down urban canyons]

convection [rising air from warm urban areas pulling air in from rural areas]

photochemical air pollution

the reaction of sunlight with gases form burned fossil fuels that create new chemicals

particulate pollution

a mixture of solid and liquid particles suspended in the air that can affect the respiratory system

main causes of air pollution

transport, burning of fuels and industry

what happens with precipitation in rural areas

it slowly infiltrates into the ground and slowly reaches rivers and streams through the soil

what happens with precipitation in urban areas

impermeable surfaces stop precipitation from infiltrating into the ground

sustainable urban drainage systems [SUDS]

systems to manage rainfall in urban areas too reduce and control flooding

aims of SUDS

control the quality of water runoff

manage the quality of runoff to prevent pollution

create and sustain better places for people

create and sustain better places for nature

dereliction

the abandonment of buildings due to industries going out of buisness with nothing replacing it

effects of urban dereliction

increased crime, contaminated land, decline in house prices, vandalism, migration, social unrest, high renovation cost

two centralised strategies

regeneration schemes

brownfield focus

regeneration schemes

government lead schemes with the aim of injecting new life into an area

brownfield focus

government focus on building new developments on brownfield sites over Greenfield

land remediation

a method of dealing with dereliction. the process of removing pollution and contaminants from the ground [makes ares more attractive to developers]

community action

community groups using derelict areas for community projects

aims of river restoration

to improve the quality of the river to drain water

restore it to support healthy, thriving ecosystems

provide people with recreational opportunities

large scale river restoration

could tackle an entire floodplain area or change large sections of a river channel by removing buildings

small scale river restoration

specific local options are addressed, this could be removal of hard engineering strategies

social benefits of river restoration

creation of greenspaces for recreation

opportunities for environmental learning

improvement of local peoples health and wellbeing

environmental benefits of river restoration

improvements in the quality of surrounding landscapes more sustainable transport options

increasing riverbank biodiveristy improvements in water quality

economic benefits of river restoration

reduction in the cost of flood damage

improvement of water quality

ecological footprint

the total area of productive land and water required to produce the resources the population of the urban area consumes as well as to absorb the waste produced

liveability

the features of a city that improve the quality of life for the people living there

urban resiliance

the ability for individuals, communities, institutions, businesses and systems in an urban area to survive, adapt and grow regardless of the stresses placed on them.

sustainable city

A city that provides employment, a high standard of living as well as a clean healthy environment that is fairly governed.

sustainable development

Meeting the current urban needs without stopping future generations from meeting their needs.

three issues with achieving sustainability

ecological footprint

liveability

urban resilience

why is ecological footprint an issue in achieving sustainability?

land is needed to produce resources and energy

can be large country variations \n cities are disproportionate

factors that make a city liveable

access to fresh water

food

housing

transport

education

safe and stable environment

chronic stress factors that cities with urban resilience need to handle

unemployment

inefficient transport systems

violence

chronic food and water shortages

features of a sustainable city

opportunities that are available for all

community links

affordable housing

energy efficient homes

waste is used productively

renewable resources

safe, enjoyable open space

walking and cycling opportunities

safe public transport [viable alternative]

features Copenhagen adapted to be more sustainable

cleaned water systems [improved sewage]

wind energy waste to energy plants

minimalistic metro

cycling opportunities

heating and cooling

green roof ambitions

green hotel

urbanism

way of life, attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior in urban areas

suburbanisation

when towns and villages are engulfed into larger urban areas

possible causes of suburbanisation

transport into the city \n increasing house prices \n people want to be out of the city centre \n multiple cores forming around the city

consequences of suburbanisation \[inner city\]

decreased employment opportunities leading to less employment and poverty

increased opportunity for environmental improvement of derelict land to create recreational open spaces.

consequences of suburbanisation \[suburbs\]

increasing price of land as a result of increased employment opportunities.

suburbanisation of outlying villages leading to loss of village character / community / school places for locals, increasing house prices and inability for young locals to remain in the village.

consequences of suburbanisation \[city as a whole\]

increase in size of city as demand for low density housing increases.

greater polarisation between the suburbs and inner city in terms of class, ethnic group, affluence, education, employment, and mobility.

counter urbanisation

the increasing movement of people away from cities

new towns act of 1946

encouraged counter urbanisation:

* land within 50 miles of London has to be developed into new planned towns to del with the damage from ww2.
* The new town developments should have a population of up to 60,000
* They should be built as far as possible on greenfield sites
* There should be predominantly single family housing at low density
* The homes had to be organised in neighbourhoods around a primary school and nursery schools, a pub and shops selling staple foods
* There should be a balance of housing and jobs

demographic reasons for counter urbanisation

ageing population leading to higher income retirement age, people moving out of urban areas seeking the quiet and calm of rural or coastal areas.

social reasons for counter urbanisation

people aspire to the rural idyll \[quiet, clean countryside\].

perception that villages have a better sense of community.

village schools are seen to provide better education so parents see them as better for their children.

crime rates are often lower in rural areas due to common neighbourhood watch schemes.

economic reasons of counter urbanisation

the spread of broadband and high speed internet access means that someone working from home can access the same global systems as those at an office.

increase in car ownerships means that more people can commute

many employers have moved out of city centres.

land and house prices are usually cheaper that suburbs

farmers have made unwanted land available due to agriculture facing economic challenge.

greater affluence means that people can purchase second homes in rural areas.

difficulties in assessing de-industrialisation

output, employment, import/export, trade deficit

output

a pure decline in the output of goods or employment doesn’t take into account seasonal o short term declines.

employment

even though employment in primary/ secondary sector decreases, output could still be increasing due to increases on technological advancements and automation

import/export

imported goods become more important and dominate the area

trade deficit

lack of exports leads to inability to pay for import to produce manufactured goods in the city.

deindustrialisation

the process of the removal of industry activity on an area.

typically linked to heavy industries (mining and manufacturing).

causes a fall in primary and secondary sectors.

service sector growth

there has been a move toward service industries (basic and high levels) this pushes the UK economy to be tertiary and quaternary sectors.

(service sector accounts for 77% of uk jobs)

globalisation

the growth and spread of ideas around the world

how globalisation changed the UK economy

globalisation has made it easier for people to work from home, this has lead to growth in the quaternary sector and has therefore increased the number of people working in higher skilled jobs.

how deindustrialisation changed the UK economy

deindustrialisation has occurred in the UK because:

machines and technology replaced many people in industries.

other countries can produce cheaper good and labour

there is a lack of investment (high labour costs, outdated machinery)

government policies

1945-1979 (uk economy)

the government made state run industries and the government money was spend to hold up the declining and unprofitable industries.

this all lead to strikes and social unrest

government policies

1979-2010 (uk economy)

state run industries were privatised (to create competition). older industries closed down and derelict industrial areas were turned into financial centres (offices and retail outlets.)

government policies

2010+ (uk economy)

government aimed to rebalance the economy. government policies included:

transport/infrastructure improvements.

investments in manufacturing

easy finance

encouraging global firms to move into the uk.

decentralisation

the process of businesses moving away from the centre of the city

central business district

the main business and commercial area of a town/city.

this is where most of the professional and financial industries as well as shops and retail.

characteristics of the CBD

high rise buildings

expensive land values

department and specialists shops

shopping malls and precincts

cultural and historical buildings

offices, finance, banks etc

bus and rail stations

multi story car park

how the CBD has been affected (since 1980)

loss of retailing functions to out of town shopping

loss of offices to suburbs or edge cities

increasing cost and upkeep of the CBD

first wave of deindustrialisation

development of 700+ food superstores out of the city centre

second wave of deindustrialisation

development of out of the centre retail parks aimed at retailers with bulky goods

third wave of deindustrialisation

development of out of central region

reasons for a shift to the service sector

growth of tourism

property development

increasing consumer demand for services (eg: lesiure)

growth of research and development

growth of the knowledge economy

growth of corperate HQs

issues with the post industrial economy

highly paid jobs are rare

lower skilled jobs are part time or temporary

growth in service sector hasn’t made up for loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector

TNCs and new services favour larger cities

research and development are common in areas with highly qualified labour

consumer services are more evenly spread (geographically and across urban hierarchy)

social and economic issues around urbanisation

poverty

unemployment

social unrest

crime

social segregation

economic segregation

racial segregation and tension

diaspora

a group of people with a similar heritage/homeland who have settled elsewhere

urban exclusion

economic and social problems faced by residents in areas of multiple deprivation

reasons for economic inequality

reduction/rejuvination of industry/buisness in an area

lack of infrastructure leading to poor communication

high crime rate reducing investment/location of industry

lack of qualified workers due to poor skillset and poor education

lack of governmental investment

high house and rent price compared to wages

employment rate and wages paid