Unit 8 APUSH ID's

Yalta Conference

Yalta Conference

• A meeting held in February 1945 during World War II between the leaders of the United States (President Franklin D. Roosevelt), the Soviet Union (Premier Joseph Stalin), and the United Kingdom (Prime Minister Winston Churchill) to discuss Europe's post-war reorganization.

• It laid the groundwork for the division of Germany and the establishment of spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, setting the stage for the Cold War.

Containment

• A U.S. foreign policy strategy adopted during the Cold War, primarily developed by diplomat George F. Kennan, aiming to prevent the spread of communism beyond its existing borders.

• It led to various interventions and conflicts worldwide, including the Korean War and the Vietnam War, as the United States sought to contain communist influence

Truman Doctrine

• A policy announced by President _______ in 1947, providing economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to prevent them from falling under Soviet influence.

• It marked the formalization of the containment policy and set the precedent for U.S. intervention in global affairs to combat communism.

Marshall Plan

• Officially known as the European Recovery Program, it was an American initiative launched in 1948 to aid Western Europe in rebuilding its economies after World War II by providing financial assistance.

• It aimed to stabilize and rebuild war-torn Europe, foster economic cooperation, and prevent the spread of communism by addressing the conditions that might lead to its appeal.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• A military alliance established in 1949, comprising the United States, Canada, and several European countries, formed to counter the perceived threat of Soviet expansion in Europe.

• represented a collective defense agreement among its member states, pledging mutual military support in the event of an attack by external parties.

• led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact

• A military alliance of communist states in Central and Eastern Europe, led by the Soviet Union, established in response to the formation of NATO in 1955.

• served as a counterbalance to NATO, consolidating Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and maintaining a division between the communist East and the capitalist West.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

• A congressional committee established in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities by individuals suspected of having communist ties.

• conducted highly publicized hearings, targeting Hollywood figures, intellectuals, and government officials, contributing to the Red Scare and McCarthyism.

Eisenhower Doctrine

• A foreign policy initiative announced by President _____ in 1957, stating that the United States would provide economic and military aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism.

• It expanded the containment policy to the Middle East, reflecting U.S. efforts to combat communist influence globally.

Bay of Pigs

• A failed military invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, supported by the United States, in April 1961, aiming to overthrow the communist government of Fidel Castro.

• invasion was a significant setback for the United States and intensified Cold War tensions with Cuba and the Soviet Union.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• A tense confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over the presence of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba, which threatened U.S. security.

• It brought the world to the brink of nuclear war and highlighted the dangers of superpower confrontation during the Cold War.

Bretton Woods System

• A post-World War II international monetary system established in 1944 at the _____ Conference, which pegged the value of currencies to the U.S. dollar and established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

• played a crucial role in facilitating and stimulating international trade and economic stability in the aftermath of World War II.

World Bank

• An international financial institution established in 1944 to provide loans and grants to developing countries for development projects and poverty alleviation.

• along with the IMF, was created as part of the Bretton Woods System to promote economic development and reconstruction after World War II.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• An international organization established in 1944 to promote international monetary cooperation, exchange stability, and balanced growth by providing financial assistance and policy advice to member countries.

• The played a key role in stabilizing currencies and facilitating economic development within the framework of the Bretton Woods System.

Military-industrial complex

• A term coined by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in his farewell address in 1961 to describe the relationship between the military establishment, defense contractors, and government policymakers, suggesting that this alliance could influence government policy.

• became a prominent feature of U.S. politics and economics during the Cold War, shaping defense spending and influencing foreign policy decisions.

Joesph McCarthy

• A U.S. Senator from Wisconsin who became notorious for his anti-communist crusade in the early 1950s, accusing numerous individuals of being communist sympathizers without substantial evidence.

• His ideology fueled fear and paranoia about communism in the United States, leading to widespread investigations, blacklisting, and infringements on civil liberties.

John F. Kennedy

• The 35th President of the United States (1961-1963), known for his leadership during the Cuban Missile Crisis and his commitment to civil rights and space exploration.

• presidency marked a period of intense Cold War rivalry and domestic social upheaval, culminating in his assassination in 1963.

National Defense Education Act

• A federal law enacted in 1958 to enhance education in science, mathematics, and foreign languages in response to perceived Soviet technological advancements, particularly after the launch of Sputnik.

• The Act reflected Cold War competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, emphasizing the importance of education in maintaining national security and technological superiority.

National Interstate and Defense Highways Act

• A federal law enacted in 1956 to authorize the construction of a national system of interstate highways for defense purposes and to facilitate economic growth and interstate travel.

• The Act transformed transportation infrastructure in the United States, facilitating economic development, suburbanization, and military mobility during the Cold War era.

Veterans Association (VA)

• A government agency established to provide healthcare, benefits, and services to military veterans, their families, and survivors.

• played a crucial role in supporting veterans returning from World War II and later conflicts, addressing their medical needs, housing, education, and employment assistance.

Shelly v. Kraemer

• A landmark Supreme Court case in 1948 that declared racially restrictive housing covenants unenforceable, challenging racial segregation in housing.

• was a significant legal victory in the civil rights movement, laying the groundwork for subsequent challenges to racial discrimination and segregation in housing and other areas.

Levittowns

• Suburban communities consisting of mass-produced, affordable homes built by _________ and his company after World War II, contributing to suburbanization in the United States.

• symbolized the post-war suburban boom and demographic shifts, reflecting changing lifestyles, housing preferences, and urban development patterns during the Cold War era.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

• A landmark Supreme Court case in 1954 that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

• marked a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, challenging racial segregation in public schools and paving the way for broader efforts to dismantle segregation and achieve racial equality

Thurgood Marshall

• An African American lawyer and civil rights activist who served as the Chief Counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund and later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice, appointed in 1967.

• played a central role in litigating civil rights cases, including Brown v. Board of Education, and his appointment to the Supreme Court represented a significant milestone in the struggle for racial equality.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

• A mass protest campaign organized by the African American community in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955-1956 to challenge racial segregation on the city's public buses after the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger.

• a key event in the civil rights movement, demonstrating the power of nonviolent protest and leading to the desegregation of public transportation in Montgomery.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

• A student-led civil rights organization founded in 1960 to coordinate and support nonviolent direct action tactics against racial segregation and discrimination.

• played a significant role in organizing sit-ins, voter registration drives, and freedom rides, contributing to the momentum of the civil rights movement and advocating for social change.

March on Washington

• A massive civil rights demonstration held in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963, where approximately 250,000 people gathered to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans.

• culminated in Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic "I Have a Dream" speech and helped pressure Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Landmark legislation signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin and outlawing segregation in public places and employment practices.

• was a major achievement of the civil rights movement, representing a significant step toward racial equality and social justice in the United States.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Federal legislation signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed at overcoming legal barriers to voting for African Americans, particularly in the South, by prohibiting discriminatory voting practices such as literacy tests and poll taxes.

• was a key victory for the civil rights movement, facilitating greater African American political participation and representation in the democratic process.

Black Panther Party

• A revolutionary socialist organization founded in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, advocating for African American empowerment, self-defense, and community organizing.

• emerged in response to police brutality and systemic racism, engaging in community service programs and advocating for black liberation and social justice.

Martin Luther King Jr.

• An influential leader in the American civil rights movement, known for his advocacy of nonviolent protest and his role in advancing civil rights through campaigns such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington.

• was a central figure in the civil rights movement, inspiring millions with his moral leadership and commitment to achieving racial equality through peaceful means.

Malcom X

• An African American Muslim minister and human rights activist, known for his advocacy of black nationalism, self-defense, and Pan-Africanism, as well as his critique of nonviolent resistance.

• was a prominent voice in the struggle for civil rights, advocating for black empowerment and self-determination through cultural pride, economic self-sufficiency, and political activism.

Great Society

• A set of domestic programs and initiatives launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960s, aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice and promoting social welfare, healthcare, and education reform.

• expanded the role of the federal government in addressing social and economic inequality, leading to the creation of programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Head Start.

Medicare

• A federal health insurance program established in 1965 under the Social Security Administration, primarily provided coverage for Americans aged 65 and older, regardless of income or medical history.

• addressed the healthcare needs of elderly Americans, ensuring access to essential medical services and reducing financial burdens associated with healthcare in old age.

Medicaid

• A joint federal and state program established in 1965 under Title XIX of the Social Security Act, providing health coverage to low-income individuals and families, including children, pregnant women, elderly, and disabled individuals.

• aimed to address disparities in healthcare access and affordability, particularly among vulnerable populations with limited financial resources.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

• A joint resolution passed by the U.S. Congress in 1964, granting President Lyndon B. Johnson broad powers to use military force in Vietnam in response to reported attacks on American naval vessels in the ______.

• provided legal justification for escalating U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, leading to increased military intervention and a deepening of the conflict.

Operation Rolling Thunder

• was a sustained bombing campaign conducted by the United States against North Vietnam from March 1965 to November 1968. It aimed to put pressure on the North Vietnamese government and military, disrupt their war effort, and compel them to cease support for the Viet Cong insurgency in South Vietnam.

• was a significant escalation of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, reflecting the Johnson administration's strategy of using air power to achieve military and political objectives. Despite its intensity, the operation failed to achieve its intended goals and contributed to anti-war sentiment and criticism of U.S. tactics in Vietnam.

Counterculture

• A social and cultural movement that emerged in the 1960s, characterized by a rejection of mainstream norms and values, experimentation with alternative lifestyles, artistic expression, and political activism.

• movement reflected generational tensions, cultural upheaval, and dissatisfaction with traditional institutions and societal norms during the turbulent 1960s.

Tet offensive

• A large-scale coordinated attack launched by North Vietnamese forces during the Vietnamese New Year (Tet) in 1968, targeting multiple cities and military installations in South Vietnam.

• a turning point in the Vietnam War, shaking American confidence in the military's progress and contributing to growing opposition to the war effort.

Women’s liberation

• A feminist movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, advocating for gender equality, reproductive rights, workplace equality, and an end to gender-based discrimination and oppression.

• challenged traditional gender roles and patriarchal structures, leading to significant social and legal changes, including the passage of laws such as Title IX.

Title IX

• A federal law enacted in 1972 as part of the Education Amendments, prohibiting sex discrimination in educational programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance.

• transformed opportunities for women and girls in education, athletics, and other areas, promoting gender equity and expanding access to educational resources and opportunities.

Stonewall

• Refers to the ____ riots, a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations by members of the LGBTQ+ community in response to a police raid at the Stonewall Inn in New York City in June 1969.

• marked a turning point in the LGBTQ+ rights movement, galvanizing activism and advocacy efforts for equal rights, visibility, and acceptance.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

• a federal agency of the United States government, established in 1970 by President Richard Nixon. Its mission is to protect human health and the environment by enforcing regulations and conducting research on environmental issues.

• plays a crucial role in developing and enforcing environmental laws and regulations, addressing issues such as air and water pollution, toxic substances, and climate change. Its creation marked a significant step in environmental policy and regulation in the United States.

Pardon of Nixon

• In September 1974, President Gerald Ford granted a full and unconditional pardon to his predecessor, Richard Nixon, for any crimes he may have committed while in office as President.

• controversial decision that sparked debate and criticism. Some argued that it was necessary to heal the nation's wounds from the Watergate scandal and move forward, while others viewed it as an act of political favoritism and an obstruction of justice.

Affirmative Action

• refers to policies and programs designed to address past and present discrimination by actively promoting equal opportunity and increasing representation of historically disadvantaged groups, such as racial minorities and women, in education, employment, and government contracting.

• has been a contentious issue, sparking debates over fairness, meritocracy, and the role of government intervention in addressing systemic inequalities. It has been implemented through various strategies, including quotas, preferential treatment, and diversity initiatives.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

• a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would guarantee equal legal rights for all citizens regardless of sex. It was first introduced in 1923 and passed by Congress in 1972, but failed to be ratified by the required number of states.

• sparked widespread debate over gender equality and women's rights. Supporters argued that it was necessary to address gender discrimination and ensure equal protection under the law, while opponents raised concerns about its potential impact on social norms and family structure.

Roe v. Wade

• a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1973 that established a woman's constitutional right to have an abortion without excessive government restriction. The case originated from a challenge to a Texas law criminalizing most abortions.

• remains one of the most significant and controversial decisions in Supreme Court history, shaping debates over reproductive rights, privacy, and the role of government in regulating personal medical decisions.

Harvey Milk

• an American politician and gay rights activist who became one of the first openly gay elected officials in the United States when he was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1977.

• election and activism represented a milestone in LGBTQ+ rights and visibility, inspiring marginalized communities and advocating for equality, diversity, and acceptance. His assassination in 1978 further galvanized the gay rights movement and solidified his legacy as a pioneer for LGBTQ+ rights.