Unit 3b Psychology

Associative Learning

Realizing that certain events occur together, both humans and animals learn through this kind of learning

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus (like sensory adaptation)

Classical Conditioning

A type of passive learning in which we link two or more stimuli

Behaviorism

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies observable actions without reference to internal mental processes

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response (cause of an action)

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences (learning through reinforcement & punishment)

Cognitive Learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events/others through language

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unlearned, naturally occurring cause of behavior

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Unlearned, naturally occurring behavior

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Learned cause of behavior

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned behavior

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in which one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, so the neutral stimulus triggers the unconditioned response (ex. bell=food)

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response (ex. Pavlov’s dogs are freedom from the lab, adopted by nice families, and don’t drool everytime a bell rings)

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response (ex. Pavlov’s dogs are living happily on a lovely farm, and find themselves drooling randomly when the farmer rings the dinner bell)

Higher-order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (as if it were the unconditioned stimulus) creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus (ex. if bell=food, and bell is within light, then light=food)

Counterconditioning

Using the principles of learning to change an existing behavior (ex. Aversive conditioning to end addiction, systematic desensitization to treat phobias)

Generalization

Tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a similar response (ex. Pavlov’s dogs drooling to all bell-like sounds - telephones, door bells, dinner bells, etc.)

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (ex. pigeons trained to respond to a red light will not respond to a green light)

Aversive Conditioning

A form of psychological treatment in which a patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to some form of discomfort

Pavlov’s Dog Experiement

Dogs were presented with a neutral external stimulus (bell/tone) followed immediately by the unconditioned stimulus (food/meat). After several repetitions, the dogs were presented with the external stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus to see if there was a response. If there was the neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus and their reaction is a conditioned response

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (ex. Edward Tolman’s Maze Study)

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment (ex. if you were blind folded, you could easily navigate through your home, you’ve never studied the blue prints, but you know the layout of your house)

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution after repeated trial and error, no previous model or learning is presented

Albert Bandura

He created an experiment to test the effectiveness of observational learning in which children watched adults play with various toys in a room, one of which was an inflatable clown doll named Bobo. If the children witnessed the adults beating or kicking Bobo, they would mimic those actions, proving that much of behavior we learn (good or bad) is learned through observation

Operant Conditioning

Type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely to reoccur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to reoccur if followed by a punisher (based on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect)

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect

The principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

B.F Skinner

“Father of Behaviorism” or “Father of Operant Conditioning”, elaborated on the law of effect, studying how pigeons and rats learn through reinforcement

Operant Chamber

Crafted by B.F Skinner, which contained a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting rewarding stimuli (ex. getting good grades encourages you to study, getting complimented on your looks encourages you to dress a certain way)

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli (ex. putting on a coat to stop feeling cold, cleaning your room to get rid of the mess)

Primary Reinforcers

Innately rewarding by satisfying a biological need (food, water, shelter, etc.)

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers

Those that gain power through association with a primary reinforcer (money to buy food, water, shelter, etc.)

Shaping

Process in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer to the desired behavior (ex. training a dog to sit when you call them and giving them a treat)

Learned Helplessness

The feeling of hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when they are unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Token Economy

A system in which the learner earns tokens by engaging in a targeted behavior and those tokens can be exchanged for a reward

Fixed Ratio

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a desired behavior only after a specific number of actions have been completed (ex. getting a bonus for every three cars sold)

Fixed Interval

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a desired behavior only after a specific amount of time has passed (ex. getting a paycheck every week)

Variable Ratio

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a desired behavior after a changing and unpredictable amount of responses (ex. slot machines)

Variable Interval

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a desired behavior after a changing and unpredictable amount of time has passed (ex. pop quiz)

Positive Punishment

Administration of an aversive/negative stimulus (ex. traffic tickets, given extra chores)

Negative Punishment

Removal of a pleasant/rewarding stimulus (ex. losing car/phone privileges, getting grounded and losing freedom)

Escape Learning

A type of negative reinforcement in which a behavior that removes an unpleasant stimulus is increased (ex. faking sick to leave a social gathering,sneaking out of the back of the restaurant to get away from a bad date)

Avoidance Learning

A type of negative reinforcement in which a behavior that prevents an unpleasant stimulus is increased (ex. claiming your parents won’t allow you to attend a social gathering, ghosting people you are not interested in)

Biological Preparedness

Idea that humans are biologically predisposed to quickly learning associations between stimuli, responses and reinforcers

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement, is often used in the shaping process and is a specific environmental cue or event that signals the ability of reinforcement for a particular behavior

Vicarious Conditioning

The act of learning things through observing the reactions, attitudes and emotions of others (similar to observational learning)

Zone of Proximal Development

The range of development where an individual can achieve higher levels of understanding and skills with the guidance of an adult or capable peer, distinguishing between their current capabilities and their potential growth

Superstitious Behavior

Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related

Instinctive Drift

An animal or human no longer performs the behaviors it has been taught, but goes back to behaviors that are in its nature

Taste Aversions

A learned response where an individual develops a strong dislike for a specific food after consuming it and experiencing illness or nausea afterwards

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned

Reinforcement Generalization

Generalization occurs when a behavior reinforced in one context is performed in similar situations (ex. a student who studies diligently for calculus and receives excellent grades might apply the same study habits to psychology and history, expecting similar results)

Reinforcement Discrimination

Discrimination is developed through differential reinforcement by determining when reinforcement is and is not received (ex. rewarding a child for brushing their teeth before bedtime and withholding the reward when the child does not brush their teeth before bedtime)