AP Psych Standard 3 Vocab

longitudinal study

research method that follows the same group of people over a long period of time, measuring how they change as they age

cross sectional study

research method that studies different groups of people of different ages at one point in time to compare how they differ

continuity

Idea that development happens in gradual, continuous, and steady changes

discontinuity 

Idea that development happens in distinct stages, with sudden or large shifts

stage theory

Suggests that development occurs in fixed, universal stages, and individuals move from one stage to the next in a set order

teratogens

Harmful substances that can damage a developing fetus during prenatal development (drugs, alcohol, radiation, infections)

fetal alcohol syndrome

A set of physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant person drinking alcohol. Symptoms can include small head size, facial abnormalities, and learning problems.

maturation

Biological growth processes that occur automatically and in a set order, mostly uninfluenced by experience (ex: sitting→crawling→walking)

critical period

A specific time in development when certain skills must be learned, or they may never fully develop (ex: language)

sensitive period 

Time when a child is especially responsive to learning certain skills, but it’s still possible to learn them later -- just harder (ex: second language learning)

fine motor skills

Skills involving small movements using fingers, toes, or the face

gross motor skills

skills involving large body movements (walking, jumping, running, climbing)

visual cliff

Research experiment used to test depth perception in infants

puberty

period of sexual maturation during which an individual becomes capable of reproduction

primary sexual characteristics vs. secondary sexual characteristics

primary: reproductive organs present at birth that are directly involved in reproduction, secondary: non-reproductive physical traits that emerge during puberty

schemas

mental frameworks or concepts that organize and interpret information. They help us make sense of the world by giving us expectations about people, objects, and events

assimilation

Processes of interpreting new experiences using existing schemas (new info fits into what you already know)

accommodation

Adjusting or creating new schemas when new information does not fit existing ones (you change your thinking to fit new information)

sensorimotor stage

Piaget’s first stage (birth-2y) where infants understand the world through senses and actions (object permanence, stranger anxiety)

object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (emerges ~8-12 months)

preoperational stage

Piaget’s second stage (2-7) where children use language but lack logical reasoning (egocentrism, pretend play, lack of conservation)

egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the inability for a child to take another person’s point of view (thinks everyone sees/feels what they do)

theory of mind

Understanding that people have their own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and intentions that may differ from one’s own (develops ~preschool age)

concrete operational stage

Piaget’s third stage (7-11) where children gain logical thinking about concrete events (conservation, reversibility)

conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same even when its shape or appearance changes (mass, volume, numbers stay constant despite changes in form)

reversibility

Understanding that actions or operations can be reversed, returning something to its original state

formal operational stage

Piaget’s fourth stage (beginning ~12y), individuals develop the ability to think logically about abstract, hypothetical, and future situations

abstract thinking

The ability to think about ideas and concepts that are not directly tied to concrete, physical objects or experiences

hypothetical reasoning

Ability to think about possibilities and imagine different outcomes, situations, or scenarios that are not currently real

metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking. The ability to reflect on, understand, and control your own cognitive processes

zone of proximal development

(ZPD) the range between what a learner can do independent and what they can do with guidance or support from a more skilled person (teacher, parent, peer)

scaffolding

teaching method where a more skilled person (teacher, peer) provides temporary support, guidance, or breaking down tasks to help a learner master a new skill within their ZPD

crystallized intelligence

the accumulation of knowledge, facts, skills, and understanding gained from life experiences and education

fluid intelligence

the ability to reason, solve new problems, use logic, and think abstractly, without relying on prior knowledge or learned facts

neurocognitive disorders

involve a significant decline in cognitive functions like memory, attention, or problem-solving, occurring after a period of normal development, often due to brain damage or disease

alzheimer’s disease

a progressive brain disease that involves memory loss, cognitive decline, neural death, and changes in behavior

phonemes

smallest individual sounds in any language that can distinguish one word from another

morphemes

smallest units of meaning in a language (root words, prefixes, suffixes), act as building blocks for words

syntax

aspect of grammar that refers to the rules used to put words in the correct order in a sentence

semantics

component of language that provides both the meaning of words and how words combine to form meaning

babbling

consonant like sounds that begin around 6 months

telegraphic speech

First multi word speech consisting of 2-3 word expressions (typical 18-30 months)

overgeneralization

characteristic error when learning a language in which individuals apply grammatical rules too broadly

ecological systems theory

explains human development as influenced by interconnected environmental layers, from immediate settings (microsystem like family) to broad cultural contexts (macrosystem like societal values), highlighting how these nested systems interact to shape an individual's growth

attachment

deep, enduring emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver

secure attachment

healthy bond where a child feels safe, uses the caregiver as a base to explore, gets distressed when they leave, and is easily comforted upon their return, showing trust and comfort with caregivers, leading to better emotional regulation and relationships later in life

anxious attachment

an insecure style where individuals crave intimacy but fear abandonment, leading to a deep need for reassurance, insecurity, clinginess, jealousy, and heightened sensitivity to relational cues, often stemming from inconsistent childhood caregiving

avoidant attachment

an insecure style where individuals, often due to emotionally distant or neglectful caregiving in childhood, learn to suppress emotional needs, avoid intimacy, and value independence, leading them to seem indifferent or uncomfortable with closeness in relationships, even showing little distress when a caregiver leaves in the Strange Situation

disorganized attachment

an insecure style where a child shows contradictory, confused behaviors (like approaching and then freezing) with a caregiver, stemming from inconsistent, frightening, or abusive care, creating internal conflict and difficulty trusting others, often leading to fearful-avoidant patterns (wanting closeness but fearing it) in adulthood, marked by push-pull dynamics and difficulty with emotional regulation

contact comfort

Innate pleasure and sense of security infants derive from close physical touch with caregiver (monkey experiment!)

imaginary audience

adolescent’s belief that everyone is constantly watching, judging, and focused on their appearance and behavior, leading to intense self-consciousness, even when no one is actually paying attention

personal fable

adolescent’s belief that their experiences, thoughts, and feelings are unique and special, leading to a sense of invulnerability where they feel immune ot harm and that no one else can truly understand them

parenting styles

general strategies parents use, categorized primarily by psychologist Diana Baumrind

authoritarian parenting

high demands, strict rules, and low responsiveness, where parents value obedience, use punishment over reinforcement, and expect rules to be followed without question or discussion, creating a one-way communication dynamic

authoritative parenting

balanced style with high warmth/responsiveness and high demands, characterized by nurturing parents who set clear, reasonable rules, explain the “why,” encourage independence, listen to input, use discipline as teaching, fostering confident, self-reliant, and socially competent children

permissive parenting

high responsiveness but low demandingness, meaning parents are warm and nurturing but set few rules, offer little structure, avoid confrontation, and act more like friends than authority figures, leading to children who often lack self control but are energetic and friendly.

neglectful parenting

a style characterized by low demands for behavior and low emotional responsiveness, where parents are generally detached, disengaged, and fail to provide adequate structure, support, or nurturing for a child's development, often providing only basic physical needs while ignoring emotional needs, leading to negative outcomes like poor self-control and insecurity

identity achievement

high exploration, high commitment. Individuals have explored various options and made firm, personal commitments

identity foreclosure

low exploration, high commitment. Accepted commitments (often from parent/society) without exploring alternatives

identity moratorium

status of active exploration, individuals are questioning and trying out different identities, but haven’t committed yet

identity diffusion

low exploration, low commitment. Lacking direction, not exploring, and not committed

classical conditioning

type of associative learning, established by Ivan Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

Any stimulus that will always and naturally elicit a response

unconditioned response

Any response that always and naturally occurs at the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus

Any stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response associated with the unconditioned response

conditioned stimulus

Formerly neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned conditioned response

conditioned response

the learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus (now the conditioned stimulus) that occurs after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

generalization

Tendency to respond the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and a similar stimuli that do not signal the same response

extinction

The weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest

higher order conditioning

Conditioning in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus

emotional response

A learned emotional reaction (such as fear, happiness, or anxiety) associated with a particular stimulus

counterconditioning

A conditioning process that replaces an unwanted response with a more desirable response by pairing the stimulus with a new outcome

taste aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food after it has been associated with illness or discomfort

biological preparedness

The idea that organisms are genetically predisposed to learn certain associations more easily than others.

habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is influenced by consequences, such as rewards or punishments

law of effect

The principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely

reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again

positive reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by adding a desirable stimulus after the behavior

negative reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior.

positive punishment

Decreasing a behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus

negative punishment

Strengthening a behavior by removing an undesirable stimulus after the behavior

primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that is naturally rewarding and satisfies a biological need (such as food or water)

secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer that gains its value through association with a primary reinforcer (such as money or grades)

continuous reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which every occurrence of a behavior is reinforced

partial reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced only some of the time

fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set amount of time has passed

variable interval schedule

Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time

fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses

variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses

shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target is achieved

instinctive drift

The tendency for an animal’s natural, instinctive behaviors to interfere with learned behaviors

learned helplessness

A condition in which a person or animal learns to believe they have no control over a situation and stops trying to change it, even when escape is possible

superstitious behavior

A behavior that occurs because it was accidentally reinforced, leading the individual to believe it causes a certain outcome

social learning

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating others, often influenced by rewards and punishments

observational learning

Learning by watching behavior of others and the consequences of those behaviors

bobo doll experiment

Albert Bandura’s study demonstrating that children learn aggressive behaviors through observing adults