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Experience EXPECTED Brain Growth
depends on ordinary experiences expected by the brain for normal growth
occurs early & naturally
sensitive, caring parenting nurtures brain growth
Example: babies who hear their parents talk frequently develop better language skills. A child growing up in a talkative household will naturally acquire vocabulary, whereas a child in an isolated environment might struggle with communication
Experience DEPENDENT Brain Growth
additional growth & refinement due to specific learning experiences
varies across individuals & cultures
rushing early learning may overwhelm neural circuits
Example: a child raised in a musical family who practices an instrument will have unique brain development in auditory and motor areas, while another child growing up in a tech-focused household might develop stronger problem-solving skills through coding
Heredity
Twin Studies: show genetic influence
Adoption Studies: weight differences, impact of early malnutrition
Example: two identical twins raised in different homes may have similar body types due to genetics, but the twin in a more nutritious environment may grow taller and be healthier overall
Nutrition
Breastfeeding Benefits: antibodies, gut bacteria, lower obesity risk
Recommended: exclusively for 6 months, ideally 2 years
Chubby babies & obesity risk
1/3 of children: NO fruits; 1/4: no vegetables
1/3 of global children malnourished, 16% of US kids have food insecurity
leads to stress, learning behavior issues, lasting physical effects
Example: a study found that children who consume more processed foods in early childhood tend to have lower IQ scores by age 8, while those who eat more fresh food and proteins have better cognitive function
Emotional Well-Being in relation to nutrition
Weight faltering (10%): linked to poor parent-child relationships
Example: a neglected infant in an understaffed orphanage may fail to gain weight even with adequate food, highlighting the importance of emotional security in physical health
Breastfed Babies
less illness (infections, SIDS, IBS)
better neurological & cardiovascular health
lower risks of obesity, asthma, eczema, diabetes, cancers
higher cognitive test scores
fewer cavities, better immune systems
Example: research shows that __________ in developing countries are less likely to die from infectious diseases due to the antibodies in breast milk, whereas formula-fed infants face higher risks of malnutrition
Breastfeeding Mothers
faster recovery, less postpartum bleeding
more likely to return to pre-pregnancy weight
lower risk of osteoporosis, ovarian & breast cancer
more confidence, less anxiety
Example: a mother who _______ is less likely to develop breast cancer later in life, as seen in studies comparing ______ rates ad cancer incidence
Imitation
Meltzoff’s study; mirror neurons involved
Value: Helps develop Theory of Mind
Example: a newborn sticking out their tongue after seeing an adult do it shows early _____ skills, which later help them understand social cues
Habituation
decreased response to repeated stimuli
Recovery: Responsiveness returns to prior level
Value: Differentiate novel & familiar stimuli
Example: a baby who initially reacts excitedly to a ringing bell will stop responding after repeated exposure but will show renewed interest if the pitch changes
Hearing & Statistical Learning
babies attune to faces, rhythms, language
prefer socially meaningful stimuli
Example: a baby in an English-speaking households loses the ability to distinguish subtle sound differences in Japanese by 10 months, while a bilingual baby maintains sensitivity to both languages
Vision & Object Perception
prefer faces over objects
prefer attractive & symmetrical faces
By 3 months: differentiate facial features
By 5 months: recognize emotional expressions
Perceptual narrowing: babies focus on familiar race & gender
Example: a study found that babies raised in diverse environments can differentiate between unfamiliar racial faces longer than those raised in homogeneous settings
Differentiation Theory of perceptual development
infants search for stable patterns in the environment
detect patterns in faces & designs
learn affordance (action possibilities of objects)
Example: a baby repeatedly playing with a rubber ball learns that it can roll but not bounce like a basketball
Motor Milestone: Newborn
fetal posture
Motor Milestone: 1 month
holds chin up
Motor Milestone: 2 months
holds chest up
Motor Milestone: 4 months
sits when supported
Motor Milestone: 7 months
sits alone
Motor Milestones: 9 months
Stands holding furniture
Motor milestones: 10 months
crawls
Motor Milestone: 11 months
walks if led (falls 17x/hour; covers 29 football fields/day)
Motor Milestone: 11 months (part 2)
stands alone
Motor Milestones: 12 months
walks alone
Motor Milestones: Example
a baby who is frequently given tummy time may start crawling earlier than one who spends most of their time in a baby seat
Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development
Motor skills develop as a combination of:
Central nervous system development
body movement capabilities
Childs goals
environmental support
Example: a baby learning to walk may be influenced by both physical strength (leg muscles), a desire to reach a toy (goal), and encouragement from parents (environmental support)
Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Development: Cultural influence
some cultures discourage early motor progress, others encourage
Example:
Iranian orphans: 15% walked alone by age 3-4 due to lack of stimulation
Western sleep practices (babies on backs): Delays crawling
Example: babies in Jamaica often start walking earlier due to cultural practices that include stretching exercises, while American babies may crawl later due to back-sleeping recommendations
How do schemas change over the course of development in Piagets theory?
______ evolve from sensorimotor action patterns in infancy to complex thinking before acting
What is assimilation?
Using existing schemas to interpret the world
example: getting a new iPhone and assuming it functions like the old one
What is accommodation?
adjusting or creating new schemas to fit new experiences
example: learning to use new features on an iPhone instead of assuming it works the same way as the old one
What is equilibrium?
a stable state where assimilation is more common than accommodation
feeling confident and settled after the first year of college
What is disequilibrium?
a period of cognitive upheaval where accommodation occurs more
example: starting a new job and realizing prior experience doesn’t fully prepare you for the role
What is organization in cognitive development?
linking schemas into an interconnected system
Example: Myelination in the brain, where frequently used neural pathways become more efficient, like paving a dirt trail into a road
What is the violation of expectation method in infant research?
a method that assesses infants knowledge by comparing their attention to expected versus unexpected events
when did piaget believe object permanence develops
6 months
What did Baillargeons research reveal about object permanence?
it may appear as early as a 3.5 months
What is deferred imitation
imitating an action observed in the past
Example: a baby sees someone wave in the morning and tries to wave in the evening
What is inferred imitation
understanding others intentions and imitating them accordingly
example: a child watches an adult try to push a button but fail; the child then pushes the button correctly
What is symbolic understanding?
the ability to use symbols like words to represent objects not present
example: a one year old saying dog while looking at an empty dog bed
What is the video deficit effect
young child learn better from live interaction than from a video
Example: a 2 year old learns a new word better when a parent teaches it than when watching tv
What is core knowledge perspective
the idea that infants are born with innate knowledge in specific domains
What are the core domains of thought?
physical, linguistic, psychological, and numerical
how does violation of expectation research support the core knowledge perspective
studies show infants react to impossible events, suggesting innate knowledge
Example: a baby watches an object seemingly disappear and stares longer, indicating surprise
What changes occur in cognitive processing with age?
increased memory capacity, faster information processing, and improved executive function
how does executive function develop?
with improved attention control, impulse suppression and working memory coordination
Example: resisting the urge to check a phone while studying
how does sustained attention develop in infancy
infants first focus on novel stimuli, then shift to longer attention spans through joint attention
Example: a baby initially distracted by moving objects learns to focus longer when a parent engages them
What is the Zone of Proximal Development
the range of tasks a child can do with guidance but not alone
What is scaffolding?
providing structured support to help a child learn
Example: a parent helping a child complete a puzzle by guiding rather than doing it for them
How do cultural variations influence learning?
some cultures do not explicitly instruct children but integrate learning into daily tasks
Example: a child in a farming family learns skills by watching and participating rather then being formally taught
How does make believe play contribute to cognitive development?
it helps children represent cultural activities and develop complex thinking
How does adult participation affect make-believe play?
it makes play more sophisticated and teaches cultural values
Example: a parent joining a child tea party introduces etiquette and conversation skills
What are the Bayley Scales of infant development?
a test assessing cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior in infants
What is a better predictor of later intelligence than infant IQ tests?
Habituation speed (how quickly an infant gets bored with familiar stimuli)
Example: a baby who quickly loses interest in repeated images may have stronger future learning abilities
How does the home environment affect early mental development?
factors like play materials, parent responsiveness, and daily stimulation predict cognitive outcomes
How does child care quality impact development?
high quality child care supports cognitive growth, while poor care can hinder development
Example: a daycare with a low caregiver-child ratio and educational activities fosters better language skills
What was Chomsky’s theory of language development?
Nativist: innate language acquisition device (LAD)
Interactionist
learning via speech analysis and experience
Social-Interactionist
emphasizes social interactions in language learning
What is the sensitive period for language development
a crucial window where language exposure is necessary for full proficiency
Example: a child who receives a cochlear implant before age 2 develops language more easily than one implanted after age four
What is infant-directed speech?
the exaggerated, melodic speech adults use with babies, which supports language learning
How does book reading impact language development?
children read to regularly have stronger vocabulary and language skills
Example: a toddler who hears 1,000 hours of reading by age 5 has a much larger vocabulary than one who hears 25 hours
What age do children typically learn their first word?
Between 8-18 months
How does gender impact language development?
females tend to talk earlier than males
Example: parents notice their daughters forming full sentences before their sons of the same age
How does temperament affect language development?
shy children often talk later than more outgoing children
Example: a reserved toddler might understand words but hesitate to speak, while an outgoing toddler chatters constantly
How does caregiver-child conversation influence language development?
talking to children more, reading to them, and adjusting speech to their needs helps language growth
Example: a parent who frequently names objects helps their child learn words faster
How does socioeconomic status impact language development?
Lower SES children often have smaller vocabularies and less exposure to books
How does a referential vs expressive language style affect talking frequency
children using a referential style (labeling objects) talk less than those using an expressive style (social words and emotions)
Example: a referential child may say “dog, ball” while an expressive child says “hi, bye, love you.”
Thomas & Chess’s Model of Temperament: After what age is temperament predictive of long-term behavior?
After age 3
Example: a toddler who is highly active and outgoing at age 3 is likely to remain energetic and social later on
Thomas & Chess’s Model of Temperament:What percentage of children are classified as easy children
40% - they adapt easily to new experiences and are generally happy
Example: a child who transitions smoothly into daycare and enjoys meeting new people
Thomas & Chess’s Model of Temperament: What percentage of children are classified as “difficult children”?
10% - they are at a higher risk for adjustment problems and struggle to change
Example: a toddler who frequently throws tantrums when faced with new routines or challenges
Thomas & Chess’s Model of Temperament: What percentage of children are classified as slow-to-warm-up?
15%- they take longer to adjust and may later show excessive fearfulness in school
Example: a child who initially refuses to participate in classroom activities but gradually become comfortable
Thomas & Chess’s Model of Temperament: What % of children are considered unclassified?
35% - they don’t fit neatly into any category and display mixed temperament traits
Example: a child who is generally happy but sometimes has strong reactions to change
Rothbart’s Model of Temperament: What are the components of reactivity in temperament?
Activity Level (Movement & Energy)
Attention Span/persistence (focus ability)
Fearful distress (reaction to new situations)
Irritable distress (frustration response)
Positive affect (frequency of happy moods)
Example: a child with a high activity level may always be running and climbing while a child with high fearful distress might avoid new places
Rothbart’s Model of Temperament: What is self regulation in temperament?
The ability to control emotions and behaviors, largely influenced by effortful control
Example: a child learning to wait patiently for their turn in a game instead of grabbing a toy
Rothbart’s Model of Temperament: How does effortful control affect long-term development?
It predicts favorable adjustment and development across different cultures
Example: a child who can resist the urge to interrupt in class is more likely to succeed academically
Kagans Neurobiological Model of Temperament: How do inhibited (shy) children react to new stimuli?
react negatively/withdraw
higher heart rate and stress hormones
Greater EEG activity in the right frontal lobe
Example: a shy toddler might hide behind their parent when meeting a new person
Kagans Neurobiological Model of Temperament: How do uninhibited (sociable) children react to new stimuli?
react positively, approach new experiences
greater EEG activity in the left frontal lobe
Example: a toddler eagerly walks up to a new teacher and starts talking
Where does temperament come from: what role do genetics play in temperament?
they account for about half of individual differences
Example: identical twins raised apart often have similar temperaments
Where does temperament come from: environmental factors
cultural caregiving styles
different treatment of boys & girls
Differential susceptibility to parenting (lick your rats study)
orphanages & cortisol levels
Example: children raised in emotionally supportive homes tend to develop better self-regulation skills
Where does temperament come from: What is goodness of fit in temperament?
how temperament and environment work together to shape behavior
Example: a high-energy child thrives in an active play-based school, but may struggle in a quiet classroom
Attachment Theory: What is Attachment
the emotional bond between a child and caregiver, forming the basis for future relationships
Example: a securely attached baby feels safe exploring when their parent is nearby
Attachment Theory: How is attachment measured?
Ainsworth strange situation, which observes a child’s response to a caregiver leaving and returning
Example: a baby cries when their parent leaves but calms down when they return
Attachment Theory: Secure (60%)
60% use their parents as a secure base; easily comforted
Example: a toddler runs to hug their parent after being scared but then happily resumes playing
Attachment Theory: Insecure-Avoidant (15%)
15% avoid caregiver and are slow to greet on their return
Example: a child does not react much when their parent returns after leaving
Attachment Theory: Insecure-Resistant (10%)
10% of children are clingy and very upset when their parent leaves; hard to soothe
Example: a baby cries intensely when their mother leaves and remains upset even after she returns
Attachment Theory: Disorganized/Disoriented (15%)
15% show confused and contradicting behaviors often due to poor parenting
Example: a child approaches their parent but suddenly freezes, unsure of how to react
How does early availability of a consistent caregiver affect attachment?
If a child lacks a stable caregiver (institutionalized) they may be over friendly or anxious with few friendships, longer institutional stays can cause amygdala overdevelopment
Example: children raised in orphanages without a stable caregiver often struggle with emotional regulation and social bonds
How do sensitive caregiving and interactional synchrony contribute to secure attachment, while intrusive or inconsistent caregiving lead to insecure attachment?
Sensitive caregiving & interactional synchrony leads to secure attachment
Intrusive/inconsistent caregiving leads to insecure attachment
Example: a parent who responds calmly and consistently to their baby’s cries builds trust, while a parent who is unpredictable may cause insecurity
How do infant characteristics affect attachment?
temperament, genetics, and goodness of fit with caregivers influence attachment
Example: The Unabomber (Ted Kaczynski) lacked secure attachments early in life, possible contributing to his later social detachment
Family Circumstances & Attachment: How do family circumstances affect attachment security?
stressors like job loss, marital issues, low SES & parental mental health impact attachment by affecting caregiving quality
Example: a child in a high-conflict home may experience inconsistent parenting, leading to anxiety or insecurity
Family Circumstances & Attachment: How does child care quality influence attachment?
High Quality Child care: supports emotional and social development
Long hours in inadequate care: linked to behavior problems
Example: a mother forces to leave her children locked in a closet while working led to neglect and emotional trauma
Parents Internal Working Models: How do parents own childhood experiences shape their attachment style?
parents who process their emotions with objectivity and balance tend to raise securely attached children. Those who are angry, confused, or dismissive may struggle with parenting
Example: A parent raised in an affectionate household is more likely to provide nurturing care, while a neglected child may struggle with emotional connection
Cultural Influences on Attachment
secure attachment is the majority in all cultures, but caregiving styles may vary
Example: in some cultures, children co-sleep with parents longer, which can influence attachment patterns
Fathers & Attachment Security
sensitive caregiving by fathers predicts attachment security, though less strongly than mothers
Example: a father who soothes his crying child instead of ignoring them fosters secure attachment
How do fathers build attachment through playful interactions?
bond through playful interactions which enhance emotional and social skills
Example: a father who plays peekaboo or roughhouses in a sensitive way helps their child learn to not fear the unknown
Self-Awareness Development: beginning of self awareness
Infants recognize themselves as physically distinct from their surroundings
Example: newborns react to external touch but not their own movements
What is implicit self-world differentiation
infants can tell the difference between themselves and the external world
Example: babies look longer at videos where their movements don’t match their real actions
What is implicit self awareness
recognition of oneself as a physically unique being
Example: mirror recognition test (18 months): babies recognize their reflection and may touch a mark on their face in a mirror
What is Explicit Body Self Awareness
by 18-21 months, toddlers realize their body can be an obstacle
Example: a toddler trying to push a toy cart while standing on its base learns their body affects movement
What are scale errors and when do they decline?
Young children (under 2.5 years) may fail to judge their body size in relation to objects. Scale errors decline around 2.5-3 years
Example: a toddler tries to sit in a doll-sized chair, unaware of the size difference
How does emotional understanding develop? First two years
begins with imitation & emotional contagion (“i am like others”)
recognition of emotions in facial expressions
Example: a baby smiles when their caregiver smiles
When do babies start recognizing emotions in facial expressions
4-5 months shown through habituation studies
Example: a baby stares longer at a happy face after seeing a series of sad faces
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