ESS Topic 8

What is meant by crude birth rate and how is it calculated?

The number of births per 1000 of the population.

Calculated by: (number of live births/total population) x 1000

What is meant by crude death rate and how is it calculated?

The number of deaths per 1000 of the population.

Calculated by: (total number of deaths/total population) x 1000

What is meant by the total fertility rate (TFR)

What it meant by total fertility rate

?

Total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime if she were to experience the exact current age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) through her reproductive years. It is a commonly used measure of fertility that helps to understand the potential for population growth or decline.

What is meant by natural increase rate and how is it calculated?

The rate (%) at which a population changes.

Calculated by: (crude birth rate - crude death rate)/10

What is meant by doubling time and how is it calculated?

Doubling time is the amount of time it takes for a population to double in size. It is calculated using the rule of 70, which states that the doubling time is approximately equal to: 70/natural increase. For example, if a population is growing at a rate of 2% per year, its doubling time would be approximately 35 years (70 divided by 2).

What is meant by infant mortality rate?

Number of infants who die per 1000 live births.

If a country has a total population of 2,000,000 and there were 20,000 deaths in 2019, then what is the crude death rate?

(20,000/2,000,000) x 1000 = 1

If a country has a total population of 20,000,000 and there were 10,000 births in 2019 then what is the crude birth rate?

(10,000/20,000,000) x 1000 = 1/2

Outline one example of an anti-natal population policy.

Singapore’s government introduced a series of policies to reduce birth rates in 1972 - it was widely known as the ‘stop at two’ campaign.

The anti-natalist policies included:


1. Increased access to low cost contraception.
2. Creation of easy-access family planning clinics.
3. Use of the media to promote smaller families.
4. Free education and low-cost healthcare for small families.
5. Sterilisation (abortion) programmes promoted

The programme was effective in creating a decrease in birth-rates from 23.1 per 1000 in 1972 to 14.8 per 1000 in 1986.

What would a population pyramid look like for a country in its early stages of development?

Countries in lower stages of development tend to have a young population - the most concentrated age bracket is that between 0 and 30. The higher the age bracket, the lower the population. This is generally due to high birth and death rates, low life expectancy and high total fertility rates.

Explain the factors that influence the total fertility rate of a population.

1. Access to contraception (increased access = fewer unplanned births).
2. Gender equality (women with better access to jobs and education are likely to have fewer children.
3. Health care (better health care = lower infant mortality rate - families will have fewer children knowing it is unlikely they will die young).
4. Patterns of culture and religion: religions are usually pro-natalist (they promote large families).
5. Balance of economic prosperity (generally richer families can afford to parent and educate more children).
6. Agricultural systems: societies that use subsistence farming have larger families to provide labour for the farm. Mechanisation of agriculture reduces the need for a higher birth rate.

Explain the factors that influence the death rates of a population.

1. Medical facilities and health care: more awareness and means to combat or protect against fatal illnesses.
2. Nutrition levels: wider variety and availability fo food generally means better health and less vulnerability to disease.
3. Access to clean drinking water: water scarcity may mean either people are prone to dehydration or have to resort to polluted water sources.
4. Education: informing citizens on the importance of healthy habits can avert disease.
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What is the demographic transition model?

The demographic transition model is a theoretical framework that describes the historical and projected changes in population growth rates and age distributions in countries as they undergo economic and social development. It consists of four stages, with each stage characterized by different levels of birth and death rates. The model is widely used by demographers and policymakers to understand and plan for population changes. The y axis represents population growth/changes, and the x axis represents time.

State the four different options for the disposal of solid domestic waste.

The four different options for the disposal of solid domestic waste are landfill, incineration, recycling, and composting.

Use the pollution management model to outline strategies for the management of solid domestic waste.

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The pollution management model suggests a hierarchy of strategies for managing solid domestic waste.


1. **The first strategy is source reduction, which involves reducing the amount of waste generated at the root cause:**

\- Education to stress cause of the environment.

\-  Government financial incentives e.g., charges for single use plastic bags.

\-  Encouragement to minimise food waste.

\-  Posters/campaigns that show implications of excess waste.


2. **The second strategy is controlling the release of the polluant in endeavour to minimise its toxicity. -  Recycling facilities that make recycling more accessible.** 

\-  Strategies such as composting.

\-  Change in resources: plastic to biodegradable packaging. 

\-  Incineration (burning landfill sites)


3. **The third strategy involves the cleanup and restoration of systems damaged by pollution. -  Clean-up projects (beaches/parks).**

\-  Government strategies to increase implement more bins.

\-  Succession to grow over landfill sites. 

Define the carrying capaciy and explain the difference between S and J shaped population curves.

**Carrying capacity** refers to the maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported by a particular habitat.

**S-shaped population curves**, also known as logistic growth curves, show a population initially growing exponentially, but eventually leveling off as it approaches the carrying capacity of the environment. This is due to limiting factors such as food availability, predation, and disease.

**J-shaped population curves**, on the other hand, show a population growing exponentially without any limiting factors until it reaches a point of sudden decline or crash due to the environment's inability to support the population. This type of growth is often seen in small populations or in populations that have recently experienced a disturbance.

What is an ecological footprint and what factors can cause its increase or decrease?

An ecological footprint is a measure of how much land, water, and other natural resources are required to produce the goods and services that an individual, population, or activity consumes and to absorb the waste and pollution it generates.

**Factors that can cause an increase in ecological footprint include:** population growth, consumption of resource-intensive goods and services, and inefficient use of resources.

**Factors that can cause a decrease in ecological footprint include:** conservation efforts, use of renewable resources, and adoption of sustainable practices.

What is the relationship between ecological footprints and development?

Ecological footprints and development have a **directly proportional relationship**. As development increases, so does the ecological footprint. This is because development often involves increased consumption of resources and energy, leading to greater environmental impact. Conversely, reducing ecological footprints can be a key component of sustainable development. Generally EF increases with each stage of the DTM. However, highly developed countries are better equipped to take measures aimed at reducing EFs, such as through expensive but energy efficient strategies.

State and explain an example of when a resource has varied with time.

One example of a resource that has varied with time is oil. In the early 20th century, oil was not considered a valuable resource and was often discarded as a waste product. However, as the demand for energy increased, oil became a highly sought-after resource and its value skyrocketed. Today, oil is a crucial resource for transportation, heating, and electricity generation, and its availability and price continue to fluctuate with changes in global demand and supply.

What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable natural capital?

Renewable capital can be generated/replaced as fast as it is being used. It includes living species and ecosystems that use solar energy and photosynthesis. It can also include other, non-living biological services such as air or groundwater. Non renewable natural capital is either irreplaceable or can only be replaced over geological timescales - for example, fossil fuels, soils and minerals.