Unit 3: Development and Learning

Chronological development

Changes in a person that happen over time, usually as they get older.

Lifespan development

The study of how people grow and change physically, mentally, and socially from birth all the way to old age.

Stability and change

This explores which parts of ourselves stay pretty consistent as we age (like maybe a tendency to be outgoing) and which parts change (like our interests or knowledge).

Nature and nurture

Debate about how much our genes ("nature") and our experiences ("nurture") contribute to who we are and how we develop.

Continuous development

The idea that development is a smooth and gradual process.

Discontinuous development

The idea that development happens in distinct stages.

Teratogens

Things in the environment that can harm a developing baby during pregnancy, like certain drugs, alcohol, or infections.

Fine motor coordination

The ability to make small, precise movements with your hands and fingers, like writing, buttoning a shirt, or using scissors.

Gross motor coordination

The ability to make large movements with your arms, legs, and whole body, like running, jumping, and throwing a ball.

Maturation

The natural process of physical growth and development that happens in a predictable sequence, like learning to walk before learning to run, and is largely influenced by our genes.

Reflexes

Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that babies are born with.

Rooting reflex

When you gently touch a baby's cheek, they will turn their head and open their mouth as if looking for food.

Visual cliff

A classic experiment that tests a baby's depth perception. It looks like there's a drop-off, and researchers see if the baby will avoid crawling over it.

Critical periods

Specific timeframes during development when a person is especially sensitive to certain experiences or environmental factors. If something doesn't develop properly during this time, it might be harder to change later.

Sensitive periods

A specific time in development when an individual is particularly receptive to certain types of environmental stimuli and experiences, making it easier to learn specific skills or abilities during that time

Imprinting

A rapid and strong attachment that some newborns form to the first moving object they see, usually their mother.

Growth spurt

A period of rapid physical growth in height and weight, typically happening during adolescence.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation when a person's body develops the ability to reproduce. It involves hormonal changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Primary sex characteristics

The body parts directly involved in reproduction, like ovaries in females and testes in males.

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical changes during puberty that are not directly involved in reproduction, like breast development in females, facial hair in males, and changes in voice and body shape for both sexes.

Menarche

A female's first menstrual period, signaling the start of menstruation.

Spermarche

A male's first production of sperm.

Menopause

The time in a woman's life (usually around late 40s or early 50s) when menstruation stops, and she can no longer get pregnant naturally.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (from birth to about 2 years old), where infants learn about the world through their senses and actions (like touching, tasting, and grabbing).

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. Young babies lack this understanding.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage (from about 2 to 7 years old), where children start to use symbols and language but still have limitations in their thinking.

Mental symbols

Things like words or images that stand for something else. For example, a child might use a banana as a pretend phone.

Pretend play

Imaginative play where children act out different roles and scenarios.

Conservation

The understanding that the amount of something remains the same even if its appearance changes (ex: the same amount of water looks different in a tall, thin glass versus a short, wide one). Children in the preoperational stage often struggle with this.

Reversibility

The ability to mentally undo an action or operation. For example, understanding that if you pour water from a short glass into a tall glass, you can also pour it back.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions.

Egocentrism

The inability to see things from someone else's perspective. A child might hide by covering their eyes, thinking that if they can't see you, you can't see them.

Theory of mind

The ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and intentions that are different from your own. This develops gradually during the preoperational stage.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage (from about 7 to 11 years old), where children develop logical thinking about concrete events and objects. They understand conservation and reversibility but still struggle with abstract ideas.

Systematic thinking

Being able to think through problems in a logical and organized way, considering different possibilities.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth and final stage (from about 12 years old through adulthood), where people can think abstractly, hypothetically, and logically about possibilities.

Abstract thinking

Thinking about concepts and ideas that are not concrete or tied to physical objects

Hypothetical thinking

Being able to think about "what if" scenarios and imagine different outcomes.

Scaffolding (as it pertains to Vygotsky)

Providing support and guidance to a learner that is just beyond their current level of ability, helping them to learn and grow. As the learner becomes more skilled, the support is gradually removed.

Zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, this is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the help of a more knowledgeable person. It's the sweet spot for learning.

Crystallized intelligence

Ability to use learned knowledge and experience, encompassing accumulated facts, vocabulary, and general information, which tends to increase with age

Fluid intelligence

The mental capacity to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one's environment

Dementia

A general term for a decline in mental abilities severe enough to interfere with daily life, affecting memory, thinking, language, and judgment.

Phonemes

The basic sounds of a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, how words convey ideas and concepts, and the understanding of symbols and language in communication

Grammar

The system of rules in a language that dictates how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences.

Syntax

The specific rules for how words are ordered in a sentence to make sense.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds that babies make, often around 2-4 months old

Babbling

Speech-like sounds that babies make, often around 6 months old, which include consonant-vowel combinations

One-word stage

A stage in language development (around age 1) when children primarily use single words to communicate.

Telegraphic speech

Early speech stage (around age 2) where children use mostly nouns and verbs and leave out less important words.

Overgeneralization of language rules

When children apply grammatical rules too broadly, leading to errors like saying "goed" instead of "went."

Ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory that views development as a complex interaction of different environmental systems that influence a person.

Microsystem

The immediate environment with which an individual directly interacts, such as family, school, and peers.

Mesosystem

The interactions between different parts of the microsystem. For example, how a child's home life influences their school performance.

Exosystem

Environmental settings that the individual does not directly participate in but that still affect them, such as a parent's workplace or community resources.

Macrosystem

The broader cultural values, beliefs, laws, and customs of a society that influence development.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time in the ecological systems theory, referring to how historical events and changes over time affect development.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness. Parents set strict rules and expect obedience without question ("Because I said so").

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and high responsiveness. Parents set clear rules but also explain them, are warm and supportive, and allow for some flexibility. This style is generally associated with the best outcomes for children.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness. Parents are lenient, avoid confrontation, and may be more like friends than authority figures.

Attachment styles

Patterns of emotional bonds that infants form with their primary caregivers, influencing their relationships later in life.

Secure attachment

A healthy attachment style where infants feel confident that their caregiver will meet their needs. They may be distressed when the caregiver leaves but are easily comforted upon their return.

Insecure attachment

An umbrella term for attachment patterns where infants do not feel consistently secure in their caregiver's responsiveness.

Avoidant attachment

An insecure attachment style where infants show little distress when the caregiver leaves and may avoid them upon their return. They have often learned that their needs are not consistently met.

Anxious attachment

An insecure attachment style where infants show significant distress when the caregiver leaves and may have difficulty being comforted upon their return. They often seek closeness but also resist contact, likely due to inconsistent caregiving.

Disorganized attachment

An insecure attachment style characterized by inconsistent and contradictory behaviors in the presence of the caregiver. This is often associated with inconsistent or frightening caregiving.

Temperament

An individual's natural style of reacting and responding to the environment. It's often considered to be biologically based and can influence social-emotional development.

Separation anxiety

Distress experienced by infants and young children when they are separated from their primary caregivers.

Parallel play

When young children play near each other but don't actively interact or try to influence each other's play.

Imaginary audience

The feeling during adolescence that everyone is watching and judging their every action.

Personal fable

The belief during adolescence that one's own experiences and feelings are unique and more intense than anyone else's. It can also involve a sense of invincibility.

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events, such as getting married, having children, and retiring.

Emerging adulthood

A period of development spanning roughly from the late teens to the mid-twenties, characterized by exploration and instability as young people figure out their identities and adult roles.

Stage theory of psychosocial development

Erik Erikson's theory that outlines eight stages of social and emotional development across the lifespan, each characterized by a specific psychosocial crisis or challenge.

Trust and mistrust

Erikson's first stage (birth to 1 year), where infants learn whether the world is a safe and predictable place based on their caregivers' responsiveness.

Autonomy and shame and doubt

Erikson's second stage (1 to 3 years), where toddlers strive for independence and self-control. If they are supported, they develop autonomy; if criticized or overcontrolled, they may feel shame and doubt.

Initiative and guilt

Erikson's third stage (3 to 6 years), where preschoolers begin to take initiative and plan activities. If their efforts are encouraged, they develop initiative; if they are punished or made to feel foolish, they may develop guilt.

Industry and inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage (6 to puberty), where school-aged children focus on developing competence and skills. Success leads to a sense of industry; failure can lead to feelings of inferiority.

Identity and role confusion

Erikson's fifth stage (adolescence), where teenagers explore different roles and try to figure out who they are and what they want to do in life. Successful resolution leads to a strong sense of identity; failure can lead to confusion about their place in the world.

Intimacy and isolation

Erikson's sixth stage (young adulthood), where individuals focus on forming close, meaningful relationships. Success leads to intimacy; failure can lead to feelings of isolation.

Generativity and stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage (middle adulthood), where adults focus on contributing to society and leaving a legacy. Success leads to a sense of generativity; failure can lead to feelings of stagnation or lack of purpose.

Integrity and despair

Erikson's eighth and final stage (late adulthood), where individuals reflect on their lives. If they feel a sense of fulfillment, they experience integrity; if they regret their life choices, they may experience despair.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction.

Achievement (adolescent development)

In Marcia's identity statuses, this is when an adolescent has explored different options and made firm commitments to their beliefs and values.

Diffusion (adolescent development)

In Marcia's identity statuses, this is when an adolescent has not explored any options and has not made any commitments. They may seem apathetic or uninterested.

Foreclosure (adolescent development)

In Marcia's identity statuses, this is when an adolescent has made commitments without exploring other options, often based on the beliefs of their parents or others.

Moratorium (adolescent development)

In Marcia's identity statuses, this is when an adolescent is actively exploring different options but has not yet made any firm commitments.

Racial/ethnic identity

An individual's sense of belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group and their understanding of what that means for them.

Sexual orientation

A person's romantic, emotional, and/or sexual attraction to other people (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

Religious identity

An individual's sense of connection to a particular religion or spiritual belief system.

Occupational identity

An individual's sense of what kind of work they want to do and their commitment to a particular career path.

Familial identity

An individual's sense of who they are within their family and the roles they play.

Possible selves

Individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming.

Behavioral perspective

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through environmental interactions.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eventually eliciting a similar response.

Association

The process of linking two or more stimuli or events together in memory.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in classical conditioning, where the neutral stimulus starts to become associated with the unconditioned stimulus and begins to elicit the conditioned response.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are examples of associative learning.