AP Psych - Semester 1: Final Review

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Empiricism

the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation, gathering and analyzing data is evidence to support theories

Nature vs. Nurture

genetics (innate) vs environment influences

Introspection (Wundt)

is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings. In psychology, the process of introspection relies on the observation of one's mental state, while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul.

Eclecticism

the process of explaining behavior by using two or more other approaches, used by most psychologists

Structuralism

Edward Titchener; elements of conscious experience, very descriptive, introspection, stated observations

Functionalism

William James; the purpose/use/value of conscious experience, "why"

Biological Approach

brain chemistry, genetics, and hormones influence our behavior

psychoanalytical approach (psychodynamic)

Unconscious urges/impulses and SIGNIFICANT repressed childhood memories affect behavior

Behavioral Approach

Behavior is learned through observation, rewards/punishments, and making associations

Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems (thoughts, memories, decision-making)

humanistic approach

emphasizes that humans are all inherently good, a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and free-will

Sociocultural approach

society and culture affect your behavior (norms, family, peers, social media)

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

counseling psychology

general life issues; a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational/School Psychology

Studies the process of education and works to promote the intellectual, social, and emotional development of children in the school environment

social psychology

how social context shapes people's thoughts, feelings, and goals (prejudice, conformity, attraction), how our surroundings influence us

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces (HR); to increase productivity

psychometrics Psychology

Is concerned with the measurement of behavior and capacities, usually through the development of psychological tests.

It is also concerned with the development of new techniques for statistical analysis.

personality psychology

A personality psychologist is a mental health professional who specializes in analyzing personality and how it affects their patients. They study their patients' personality traits, emotions, thought patterns and motivations and how they impact interactions and overall mental health.

experimental psychology

understanding behavior through data collection and observation (empirical)

biological psychology

is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior.

case studies

Intense examination of one person, small group, or unique situation using a variety of methods (e.g. surveys, interviews, observations, archival records, psychological tests, etc.)

Allows us to investigate rare behaviors/occurrences and topics that are impossible/unethical  to test in other ways.

+allows us to study rare topics/-small sample size

correctional research

Investigating the relationship between variables (NOT cause-effect)

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference

+behavior is occuring naturally/-no control

Surveys

Questionnaire used to learn about participant’s opinions, beliefs, attitudes, general patterns of behavior, etc.

+large sample size/-participant biases

Experimental design

• Goal is to establish cause & effect

• Controlled setting

• Trying to explain behavior

+lots of control/-artifical enviorment

quasi-experiment

A comparison that relies on already-existing groups (i.e., groups the experimenter did not create); when it is unethical/impossible to do so

meta-analysis

Statistical methods for combining multiple studies on a topic (to compare/contrast what has been found thus far by many researchers)

theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data; a tentative explanation of behavior

hypothesis

done before research; testable, educated guess about a relationship between 2 variables

population

target group of interest for study

sample

members of population that are chosen for study

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables; defined in a specific, measurable way

experimental group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

extraneous variable

In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV.

independent variable

variable that is manipulated to see its effect on the other variable

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

single blind design

procedure used to hide the group assignment from the participants in a study to prevent their beliefs about the effectiveness of a treatment from affecting the results

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion; if there is a big enough sample, it's hoped that it is a representative sample

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole; sample is proportional to population; allows results to be generalized

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate; they need to be told about things they WOULDN'T want to do

debriefing

must correct any deception, give contact information of researchers and how to learn more about study

Confidentiality

results are kept confidential, no individual results/names are posted

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire in order to not change their behavior in the study; must be necessary and corrected in debriefing

Halo Effect

When someone's overall evaluation of a person (or object or situation) influences more specific ratings.

illusory correlation

seeing a relationship between 2 variables when no such relationship exists

individualistic culture

A culture in which people believe that their primary responsibility is to themselves.

collectivist culture

reaching group goals is more important than reaching personal goals

mean

Average (sum of scores / total # of scores)

median

Middle # (when data pts are in numerical order)

mode

Most frequent score

range

Highest score - lowest score

Standard Deviation (SD)

Average distance between each score and the mean of the data set

statiscally significant

does IV really cause change in DV; if statistically significant then yes, if insignificant then no; p has to be less than 0.05, if more it is just due to chance

positive correlation

The 2 variables head in the same direction

Ex: as one increases, the other variable increases OR as one decreases, the other variable decreases

negative correlation

The 2 variables head in the opposite direction

Ex: as one increases, the other variable decreases

correlation coefficient

(r) a statistical index of the strength of the relationship between two things is (from -1 to +1)

Correlation vs. Causation

correlation does not cause causation!

Wilhelm Wundt

father of psychology, opened the first psychology lab in germany, first studied consciousness (we are not completely aware of everything our brain does)

G stanley hall

• Opened 1st American psych lab

• Founded the APA (American Psychological Association)

Edward Titchener

structuralism

william james

functionalism

Sigmund Freud

founder of Psychoanalytical Approach

central nervous system

contains spine and brain, controls most functions of the body and mind, processes, interprets and stores info, issues orders to muscles, glands, and organs

brain

The mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system

spinal cord

Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain VIA INTERNEURONS

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to rest of your body; relay between brain, spine and rest of body

somatic nervous system

controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles, and communication to sense organs

autonomic nervous system

controls involuntary functions that happen automatically in the body

sympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations, fight or flight, increases heart and breathing rate

parasympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy, rest and digest, decreases heart and breathing rate

afferent neurons (sensory neurons)

neurons that TAKE IN information from the senses to the CNS, feelings and senses (skin and eyes)

efferent neurons (motor neurons)

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body CARRY OUT INFO from CNS to PNS, guide our actions

traditional route vs reflex route

in the reflex route, the nuerons don’t go to the brain right after the spinal cord but go to guide the muscles “REFLEX”

mirror neurons

Neurons that fire when we watch others perform actions, brain firing is almost as if we are doing it

dendrites

a neuron's branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body and down the axon

soma

the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell, contains nucleus and branches out into dendrites

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

mylein sheath

a segmental layer of fatty tissue that covers many axons and helps speed neural impulses

synapse

areas where two neurons meet (gap between them)

glia cells

support neurons (stimulate growth, repair damage, keep them in place)

action potential

electrical signal that travels down the axon

Reuptake

ntm are recycled by resting neuron (reeled back in)

refractory period

when the cell is going back to rest (polarized), cannot fire another action potential

agonist

mimics an ntm (binds to receptor to activate), prevents reuptake, increases production and release

antagonist

blocks receptor sites, prevents ntm from bonding, decreases production and release

excitatory EPSP

post synaptic neuron fires an action potential (depolarized)

inhibitory IPSP

post synaptic neuron doesn't fire an action potential (polarized)

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and voluntary muscle contraction, used by PNS

norepinephrine

arousal, alertness, attention, used by SNS, associated with mood

Glutamate

excitatory (keep firing), strengthens neural connections, learning, doing things faster with less focus,

dopamine

experience of pleasure (reward pathway), initiation of voluntary muscle movement

serotonin

mood, sleep, appetite,