ap psy 7

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Visual encoding

the encoding of picture images

Mehmonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after an incident causing amnesia, therefore, a person can't store new information in their short-term memory.

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur before an incident causing amnesia, therefore, a person can't retrieve any information from their long-term memory that existed before the incident.

Episodic memory

a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. Your first day of school, your first kiss, attending a friend's birthday party and your brother's graduation are all examples of episodic memories.

Semantic memory

a category of long term memory which is concerned with ideas, meanings, and concepts which are not related to personal experiences.

Implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection AKA procedural memory

Explicit memories

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare," AKA declarative memory

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of a particular associations in memory

Proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating.

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error prone-use of heuristics.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows is to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms.

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Creative

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Fixation

the inability to see a problem form a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that had been successful in the past.

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead is to ignore other relevant information.

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explict, conscious reasonings.

Framing

the ay an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed had been discredited.

Language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morphemes

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a suffix)

Grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

Babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

One-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs.

Linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.

Two-word Stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.