Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

Printing press

Allowed the knowledge of scientific and enlightenment discoveries to spread more quickly

Scientific Method

Implemented by Francis Bacon, emphasized collecting evidence, analyzing that evidence, and then using that analysis to draw conclusions. Was a way to use reason/critical thinking.

Galileo

Provided description that planets are made of material substance (views mountains on Earth's moon with telescope). Published The Starry Messenger to try to educate Europeans about universe. Came into controversy with the Catholic Church because of advancing new findings. Contradicts Church that humans are the center of the universe and that God was no longer in a specific place

Rene Descartes

Brought a philosophical perspective to the natural sciences. Wrote discourse on Method in which he reflects on his thinking and what he knows. Concludes one fact beyond doubt, his own existence.

Emphasizes the importance of his own mind, accepting only those things that his reason said were true. world can, the two must be radically different"

Led him to the separation of mind and matter, that is that matter is inert or could be investigated independently by reason. Famous as the father of modern Rationalism, that reason is the chief source of knowledge.

Francis Bacon

Believed scientists should not rely on the ideas of the ancient authorities but instead, learn about nature using inductive reasoning (proceeding from the particular to the general). Knowledge of the natural world should be achieved through observation and experimentation. Use observation to form hypotheses or possible explanations. Test hypotheses using experimentation to form correct general principles. Analyze and draw conclusions from the results. Used this to form the Scientific Method. Believed that science should be used to benefit practical matters like benefiting industry, agriculture, trade, etc.

Newton

Connected ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or known more commonly as Principia. Proposed three laws of motion that govern planetary bodies as well as objects on Earth. Proposed universal law of gravitation, that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity. Universe now seen as one huge, regulated, uniform machine that worked according to natural laws

Lavoisier

Invented the system for naming chemical elements that is still used today. Considered the founder of modern chemistry.

Boyle

Experimented with chemistry and forms Boyle's Law on the properties of gasses. Volume of gas varies with pressure exerted on it.

Margaret Cavendish

Wrote Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy where she criticizes common view of the time that humans, through science were the masters of nature. Instead believed humans have no power at all over natural causes and effects.

Maria Winkelmann

Discovered a comet and compiled significant observations about the planets.

Harvey

Discovers heart is the beginning point of the circulation of blood and that veins and arties make a complete circuit through the body

Copernicus

Published On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres. Proposed the heliocentric model, that the Earth and other planets move around the sun.

Kepler

Identified/demonstrated laws of planetary motion. Proposed orbits are not circular but instead elliptical. Discovered that planets have elliptical orbits and the speed of those orbits.

Vesalius

Dissected human bodies at University of Padua, describes organs and general structure of human body. Used to write the first anatomy textbook

Montesquieu

Wrote the Spirit of the Laws as a study on governments. Attempted to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of humans. Proposed the value in the separation of powers, dividing the responsibilities of government between legislative, executive, and judicial branches or elements. Proposed the value of checks and balances, empowering those branches to be able to limit the others so one does not gain too much power.

Voltaire

Proposed the value of religious toleration, or not discriminating or persecuting individuals for their religious beliefs.

Proposed the value of Deism, a religious philosophy based on reason and natural laws. Idea that God created the world, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws. Beliefs brought him into conflict with the church, one of the most powerful institutions of the time.

Diderot

Wrote the Encyclopedia as a twenty-eight volume collection of knowledge that he edited. Served to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution.

Attacked religious superstition which had been common place in France. Called for reform to society, politics, and the law.

Rousseau

Writes The Social Contract which proposed the idea that society agrees to be governed by its general will. In so doing, all individuals should be forced to abide by it since it represents what is best for the entire community. Writes Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind which proposed people had adopted laws and government in order to preserve their private property. In so doing, they had lost rights to the government and needed to regain their freedom.

Social Contract

Idea that citizens consented power to the government in order for government to rule. If government should fail to act in the best interest of the people, then the people had the right to replace it with a government that would.

John Locke

Proposes natural rights including life, liberty, and the ownership of property that all men should have. Writes Essay Concerning Human Understanding, proposes idea that everyone is born with a tabula rasa, or blank mind. People are molded by their experiences. If people molded by right influences, a new and better society could be created.

Adam Smith

Believed individuals should be free to pursue their own economic self- interest. If allowed to do so, all society would benefit. Proposed the value in laissez-faire economics (French for let the people do what they want). Stated government should not interrupt the free play or natural economic forces by imposing regulations on the economy.

Rococo

Dominant art movement of the time that emphasized the feelings of grace and delicacy

Mozart and Haydn

Musical composers during period that arranged some of the most respected musical works in history. Music of the time was focused on trying to reflect society's longing for truth and wholeness.

Enlightened Absolutism

Monarchs that had embraced some ideas of the philosophes/enlightenment

Natural Rights

Philosophes suggested that citizens should have equality before the law, freedom of religion, speech, and the press, and the rights to assemble, hold property, and pursue happiness

Frederick II (the Great)

Prussian ruler that continued the Junkers as a foundation of the state. Abolished torture as a punishment for most crimes, granted limited freedom of speech and press, and promoted some levels of religious toleration. Did not free the serfs or seek to change Prussia's social structure.

Joseph II

Austrian ruler. Abolished serfdom and eliminated the death penalty.

Promoted equality before the law and religious toleration. His efforts would alienate both the nobles and the church and would be undone upon his death.

Catherine the Great

Russian ruler considered legal reform to make all people equal in the eyes of the law but did not implement it because she lacked support of the Russian nobility. Conditions worsened for peasants leading to rebellion. Peasant rebellion would fail and conditions remained bad for peasants.

War of Austrian Succession

Austria, Britain, and the Netherlands fought against Prussia, France, and Spain from 1740-1748 in support of the right of succession of Maria Theresa to the Austrian throne and against the territorial aims of Prussia

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The treaty that concluded the War of the Austrian Succession. It restored conquered territory to its original owners, with a few exceptions.

Seven Years War

German kingdom of Prussia, supported by Britain, fought against an alliance that included Austria, France, and Russia from 1756-1763. Fought in North America and Europe. Prussia and Britain won, and their victory greatly increased their power.

Treaty of Paris

The treaty that concluded the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France, as well as their respective allies. In the terms of the treaty, France gave up all its territories in mainland North America, effectively ending any foreign military threat to the British colonies there.

Impact of the French and Indian War

Will cause Britain to implement taxes and greater control over the colonies to pay for the war that benefited them. This will result in the colonies breaking from British rule during the American Revolution.

American Revolution

First attempt at radical change of government based on Enlightenment ideas. Articles of Confederation would ultimately fail and give way to the Constitution we know today.

French Revolution

Second attempt at radical change of government based on Enlightenment ideas. Much more violent amongst the citizens when compared to the American Revolution, and would ultimately fail with Napoleon's rise to power.

Heliocentric

Understanding of the universe in which the sun is at the center

Geocentric

Understanding of the universe in which the earth is at the center. Of the Ptolemaic system.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement that used reason/critical thinking to affect politics, economic, and society.

Maria Theresa

Worked to centralize and strengthen the Austria. Improved conditions for the serfs but did not embrace ideas philosophes calls to reform.

Peter the Great

Russian absolute ruler. Attempted forced modernization to make Russia a European power. Wanted to copy the ways of the Western powers. Made men shave their bears and adopted a wester style of dress. Opened door for inconsistent rule and period of political disorder.

Frederick I

Prussian ruler that maintained a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers. Doubled the size of the army to make Prussia a powerful state for its size. Prompted the Junkers or Prussia nobility that held government positions as well as military positions. Ultimately believed "one must serve the king with life and limb…"

Wollstonecraft

Emerged as a founder of the modern European and American movements for women's rights. Writes A Vindication of the Rights of Women. First challenge to men and the Enlightenment; how could men argue it unfair for government to have unchecked power over men, but then allow men to have unchecked power over women

Pascal

Experimented with liquids under pressure to form Pascal's Law. Leads to tools like the syringe and hydraulic press

Lassaiz Faire

Means allowing industry to be free from state intervention, especially restrictions in the form of tariffs and government monopolies. The phrase is French and literally means "let do", but it broadly implies "let it be", or "leave it alone."

deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

Phiosophes

Intellectuals of the enlightenment who believed in applying the spirit of rational criticism to things in life and focusing on the present world and not just the afterlife.

Separation of Powers

the division of power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government

Salons

the elegant urban drawing rooms where, in the eighteenth century, writers, artists, aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middle-class people gathered to discuss the ideas of the philosophes