AVBS1002 Final exam revision

Why is soil important in animal production

• Growing medium for pasture

• forage crops

• grain crops

• source of plant and animal

• along with climate, determines most suitable plant species

• may harbour animal pathogens/toxins

most critical soil attributes for determines (pasture) plant production

• texture (clay content)

• cation exchange capacity (CEC)

• pH

Macronutrients

• Nitrogen - most common type of fertiliser, legumes 

• phosphorus - not much taken up by plant

• potassium - fertilise the least  

secondary nutrients 

• sulfur 

• calcium 

• magnesium  

trace elements (micronutrients)

• copper

• cobalt

• iron

• manganese

• molybdenum

• selenium

• zinc

Animal and plant nutrient management at JB Pye Farm

• Soil tests carried out yearly

• Typically, an application of 100 kg/ha of urea (nitrogen) is applied to heavily grazed pasture

• Depending on seasonal conditions, “pasture booster” fertiliser applied, including N, P, K, S

• No particular attempt to rectify any trace element deficiencies in soil

micronutrient injections used at JB Pye farm 

• injections 

• pellets (boluses) ingested by cattle, once a year -’slow release’ 

• lick blocks, supplied in troughs 

the 4 pillars of food security

• food availability - demand to double by 2050

• stability of supply and access - climate variability

• food utilisation - food safety, diet quality and diversity

• physical and economic access

challenges - Food security and livestock production

productivity growth

• limited resources

• sustainability

• efficient use of resources

• optimisation of production systems

• sustainable intensification

3 pillars of sustainability 

• environment 

  • resources ( land, water, and energy)

  • Biodiversity / ecosystem health

  • Climate change

• economic

  • Profitability / productivity growth

  • Capital

• social

  • animal welfare/biotechnology

  • Rural communities / human capital

  • Industry attractiveness/Business ethics

sustainable production

• Climate / markets / costs

• environment 

• biosecurity 

• animal welfare 

sustainable consumption

• increased meat demand

• human health concerns

• policies

• climate change

sustainable and nutritious diet

• nutrition - energy, macronutrients, micronutrients

• environment

• economy and food supply

• society, culture, ethics

• other food related health issues

Integrated livestock production systems

• Social license to operate

• Animal welfare

• Political decisions

ruminants (polygastrics)

• beef cattle/buffalo

• diary cattle

• sheep

• goats

• methane emissions are highest in ruminants

monogastrics 

• poultry 

• pigs 

• fish and seafood

• horses 

efficiency of livestock systems

• feed quality

• animal production

• CH4 emissions

environmental considerations

• land condition (grazing)

• excess nutrients from manure

• greenhouse gas emissions

• sediment runoff

• biodiversity - invasive animals and plants, land management

long term adaptation - morphology 

plants 

• underground reserves 

• creeping stems 

• spines and thorns 

• leaf/root system 

animals

• mouth structure 

• digestive tract structure 

long term adaptation - physiology  

plants

• defensive compounds - toxic, bitter tasting, anti-nutritional

animals

• rumination (saliva

• detoxification

• metabolisation

• rumen microbes

• vomiting

Consequences of over-grazing

• low ground cover —> erosion

• increased undesirable plants

• reduced soil fertility —> pasture production

• reduced animal production and profitability

grazing management improvement 

• fencing 

• water points

• supplementary feed 

feed resources for livestock production

Human non edible products (ruminants)

• forages

• crop residues

• food and fibre by products: distiller dried grain, meals from oil grains

• low quality grains or inadequate for human consumption

• grains grown for animal feed only

Human edible products (both monogastrics and ruminants)

• grain

Efficiency of energy and protein production from livestock

• monogastrics most efficient (poultry and pork) based on total energy or protein consumed (grain based diets)

• ruminants most efficient based on human non edible energy or protein consumed —> forage based diets

• product: milk more efficient than meat

• production system - feedlot vs pasture fed beef, feed type: forage vs grain

• stage of maturity of animals

livestock production systems 

• grazing/pastoral - 9% global meat 

• mixed crop- livestock - 50% of worlds cereals 

• intensive/industrial - 45% of global meat 

global trends

• continued increase in demand for livestock products

• from roughages to concentrates

• from smaller holder mixer systems to large scale commodity specific systems

• from dispersed to concentrated production

intensive animal production

• produce large and constant amounts of food for the big cities, safe and at affordable price

• location close to processing facilities

• high efficiency of production

• benefit from technical advances

intensive livestock production 

• pork 

• poultry 

• beef

• diary 

• sheep and goats

intensive beef production: feedlotting

• close proximity to cattle and grain

• 40-50% of beef australian production

• 80% of beef in supermarkets

• 400 accredited feedlots

• integrated and concentrated

sheep production

• prime lamb (high rainfall)

• wool sheep (lower rainfall and mixed farms)

• mutton (96% exported)

• live export

• sheepskin

• meat and bones meals, tallow

• lanolin

goat production

• meat, fibre, milk

• australia is world largest goat meat exporter

• Meat: Boer and rangeland goat (bush goat)

• Fibre: Cashmere and Angora

native grasslands

ecosystems that contain grasses that are endemic to a region

introduced grasslands or improved pastures

pasture species of grasses and legumes which have been brought in from elsewhere 

rangelands

• areas where the rainfall is either too low or too variable for dryland crop production 

• grasslands, shrublands, woodlands and savannas in arid and semi arid temperate and tropical area 

grazing crops

most sown to be grazed for some months of the year (oats, wheat, sorghum) 

types of pastures species used in livestock production

• according to C assimilation pathways 

  • C3, C4

• according to N fixation

  • grasses, legumes

• according to growth cycles

  • annual or biannual

  • perennial 

• according to growth habits 

annual species 

plant completes its life cycle within one year after germination 

biennial species

plant completes its life cycle within two years, usually flowering in the second second 

perennial 

• plants that grow for more than two years and produce new tillers each year from a persistent crown 

• red clover, lucerne 

• phalaris, Mitchell grass 

legumes for animal production 

• seeds produced in a legume 

• highly palatable quality animal feed 

• biological N fixation to soil - symbiotic relationship Rhzobium

• some animal health issues 

  • bloat 

  • lupinosis 

nutritive value of feedstuffs 

• dry matter content 

• chemical analysis 

  • crude protein 

  • fibre 

  • fat

  • mineral concentration 

  • others: starch 

• predictions 

  • dry matter digestibility 

high rainfall livestock systems

• breed: holstein - friesisian, some jersey

• from grass only to feedlot dairy

  • concentrates

  • total mixed rations

• sown forages commonly

• use 17% of national agriculture water

• Wet temperate, subtropical highlands, subtropical

  and temperate coasts, wet tropical coast

• Beef, sheep and dairy production

• High quality domestic and export markets (Japan),

  grassfed, organic, beef specific

• Native pastures

• Perennial temperate pastures

• perennial warm-season pastures

• summer and winter crops and crop residues

Rangeland and savannah grazing

• 30% of Australia’s livestock numbers

• large properties

• low animal density

• mainly native pastures

  • mitchell grass

  • eucalypt woodlands

  • tall grass savannahs

Expanding and new grazing systems

• biodiversity 

• integrated pest management 

• converting new land 

  • rangeland → crop production

grazing management

improved by

• fencing

• water points

• supplementary feed

water point development

affects distribution of animals 

• bores, dams, tanks, rockholes, wels, waterholes 

• underground, surface run-off or reticulation (pumping)

Australian sheep statistics

• 10% of total agricultural production value 

• 2 billion bales of fine wool 

• 79.1 million sheep 

• largest producer of greasy fine wool in the world 

• largest exporter of sheep meat in the world 

sheep production zones 

Wool:

• high rainfall - finer wool sheep

• sheep wheat zones - driver environment-larger sheep, broader fibre

• pastoral zones - driest-broader fibre, larger frames, sturdier sheep

Meat

• rainfall - feed availability

sheep breeds - wool

• merino

• ouessant

• panama

• rambouillet

• shetland

sheep breeds - for meat

• prime lamb

• dorper

• suffolk 

• hampshire 

• southdown 

sheep breeds - both wool and meat

• cheviot 

• lincoln 

• hampshire 

• racka 

• southdown

sheep breeds - for milk

• awassi

• assaf

• east freisian

• icelandic

• lacaune

dual purpose cross breeding - dohne merinos

• hardy

• highly fertility 

• rapid growth rates 

• easy care 

• high quality 

dual purpose cross breeding - border/merino cross

• breeding of prime lambs

• fertility 

• good milk production 

• robust 

production cycle of sheep

1. ewe lamb reached maturity 8-12 months 

2. joined with ram 5-6 weeks

3. pregnancy scanned 70-90 days after joining 

4. lamb aprox. 60 days later (total gestation 150 days) —> pre lambing vaccination, drench, supplementary feeding

5. lamb marking 2-6 weeks of age —> tagging, vaccines, drenching, castration, tail docking

6. lambs weaned 10-14 weeks of age —> vaccination, drenching, drafting

other sheep management considerations

• flight zones - mustering 

• race loading 

• Ewe tipping

• Administration of pain relief

• Reducing stress

• Optimising sheep meat and wool production

• Calendar of operation is influenced by environmental location, weather/climate, feed availability

sheep - ear notching and tagging 

• ear marks must be placed in the off -side or right ear of a ewe lambs animal and the near side or left ear of a ram/wether lamb 

ear tag 

• NLIS

• animal id 

• property id

ear notch 

• sex 

• property id 

identified with the property they are born in with the owner’s registered earmark and year of birth coloured tag with owners brand or PIC 

sheep - castration

• removal of testes

• performed at a young ages 

• prevent indiscriminate breeding 

• reduce male aggression and fighting 

• safety and management 

• painful - cutting of spermatic cord, end of scrotum 

• different methods cause different type of tissue damage and pain 

sheep - tail docking 

performed to prevent build up of excrement on tail dags —> fly strike

• painful - significant tissue damage 

• clamp or rings 

sheep - mulesing

removal of folds of skin from the breech 

• increase perineal bare area - reduce wetting 

• painful

• tri-solfen registered for pain management 

• why? - increasing scare tissue so that there’s less availability fro flies to come in and lay their eggs 

sheep - flystrike

• fly eggs hatch, maggots start to eat the sheep alive, hard to detect signs of flystrike

• costs to sheep industry - up to 3 million mortalities each year

common sheep diseases 

• footrot 

• ovine Johne’s disease 

• cheesy gland 

• scabby mouth 

• clostridial diseases 

sheep internal parasites 

• worms 

  • haemonchus contortus - barber’s pole worm 

  • teladorsagia - brown stomach worm 

  • black scour worm 

• liver fluke 

sheep - barber’s pole life cycle

1. sheep ingest infective larvae whilst harvesting 

2. larvae develop into adults, mate and lay eggs in the abomasum 

3. eggs are excreted in dung 

4. eggs hatch in the dung 

5. larvae go through 2 moulting phases 

6. larvae climb up into pasture 

sheep - internal parasite control - drenching 

drench test - worm egg count 

• monitor parasite burden in collected faeces

• test drench resistance

rotational grazing, keep track of younger stock which might not have built up a certain level of immunity, have a certain % of flockers that are immune

sheep - external parasites

• blowfly 

• lice-body lice 

• scab mite 

sheep lice - bovicola ovis

• cost NSW sheep producers ~$148 million/year

• Feed on dead skin, secretions and bacteria normally found at the surface of the skin.

• irritate the sheep —> bite, scratch and rub 

• damaged wool - breakage and cotting of the fibres —> impact quality of fleece 

sheep - dipping and jetting 

• treatment for lice 

• J: backline of the animals 

• D: swim through a trough 

sheep - crutching and shearing

• Crutching- ‘tops and tails’ - purely sheep management purposes (reduce flystrike)

• shearing - removal of whole fleexe

• critical part of sheep enterprise

• most expensive part of sheep farming

sheep - culling and replacement

• reduce grazing pressure

• cull ewes at weaning on basis of age, deformed feet, dentition, lost lambs

• select young ewes for replacement into flock

sheep - wet and drying

• Determine ewes suckling a lamb

• Palpate the udder and look for visual signs of lactation

• Within 6 to 8 weeks of lambing or at lamb marking

benefits

• identify when and where lamb losses are occurring

• identify and remove non performing ewes and replace with more productive breeders

difficulties

• extra time required

• skill and confidence to perform technique

• and extra muster may be required

5Ts ram breeding soundness evaluation

• Teeth

• torso - body condition

• testes - scrotal circumference = semen production 

• tossle - pizzle rot, crutching 

• toes - foot rot, lameness 

Can increase pregnancy scanning by 15%- reducing wastage and costs → more lambs →more profit

key nutrients for sheep 

• water 

• energy 

• fibre 

• protein 

• vitamins and minerals - zince, selenium, copper

sheep - factors influencing nutritional needs

• age

• Reproductive status

• Activity level

• Pasture quality

sheep optimal body condition score 

• dry ewe at joining - 3

• pregnancy - 3

• lactation - 3 

• end of growing season - 3.5+

• rams at mating - 3-4 

• weaners - >2.5 

Building your sheep management calendar

• hot season - flystrike risk monitoring

• april - may → pasture growth, joining, shearing, crutching, pre lambing vaccination

• winter - supplementary feeding

• june - pregnancy scanning 

• sept - lambing 

• spring - pasture growth 

• end of year - weaning, lamb marking 

milk

• 87% water

• 13% solids - fat, protein, lactose, minerals and vitamins 

Aus dairy production

• VIC - 64%

• NSW - 12.4%

• TAS - 9.3%

• QLD - 4.6%

dairy - feeding systems in aus 

• pasture 

• partial mixed ration → ration developed by nutritionist 

• total mixed ration → diet consists wholly of a ration that is developed by a nutritionist, increasing tmr due to increasing intensity 

dairy - Characteristics of pasture-based systems

• Less intensive than TMR systems

• Lower capital investment (infrastructure, machinery)

• Natural habitat - all year round grazing (heat stress?)

• Size limit by distance of paddocks (typically 800-900 cows max)

• Lameness can be a big issue (long-walking distances)

• typically lower cost of production, greater margin but lower volumes

• Less labour intensive: 2 milkings/day (typically)

• Production less predictable (season/weather)

• Typically less exposed to risk (milk price and concentrate price)

TMR systems 

• tie stall 

• free stall (more common within the confined systems)

  • free stall with lockers 

  • free stall (modern; more capital intensive)

• compost barns (less capital intensive than free stall; can be difficult to manage)

Characteristics of confined (TMR) systems

• Higher production per cow

• Higher feed and total production costs; lower margins but higher volumes

• Larger capital investment (infrastructure, machinery) and effluent systems

• Cow comfort is paramount (all systems)

• Labour intensive: 3 milking/day (typically)

• Milk supply is more predictable

• Typically more exposed to price risk (milk price and concentrate price)

• Cows can be more at risk of metabolic diseases (ketosis, milk fever, hypomagnesaemia) and laminitis (lameness caused by high levels of grain)

• Typically fewer choices of breeds (predominant Holstein-Friesian)

• Less suitable to seasonal- or split-calving (more suitable to all-year round calving)

dairy breeds

• holstein 76%

• jersy

• illawarra reds

• brown swiss

life cycle of a dairy cow

1. birth 

2. 1st mating 13-14 months 

3. 1st calving 22-23 months 

4. 2nd calving 36 months 

5. 3rd calving 48 months 

key components of dairy production systems

• cow 

• feed - 60% of budget allocated to feed 

• harvest system 

• labor

dairy cow, first few days old

• Quick removal from dam (industry best practice)

• Identification and records (sex, dam, date, unique id, complications, treatments, NLIS)

• Birth cord/disinfectant

• Colostrum

• Dehydration

• Signs of illness

• Sick calves: treat or euthanize

dairy cow - colostrum 

• first part of immunity that a calf gets - passive immunity transfer from the dam 

• more intensive farms have a storage of high quality colostrum frozen that is thawed and provided 

• permeable blood brain barrier between abomasum and blood, as the milk is digested by the calf, these immunoglobins are able to flow into the blood and transfer immunity to the calf 

the ruminant transition

preruminant calf at birth

• abomasum is larger than rumen (60%:25%)

• dont have flora yet for digestion to occur in the rumen, instead most digestion occurs in the abomasum 

heifer after weaning 

• 80% rumen 

• 7% abomasum 

neonatal calf mortality

• neonatal enteritis (>50% mortality) 

• bovine respiratory disease 

• factors affecting - colostrum, ventilation, bedding, age matching 

rearing systems - individual 

 Advantages

• Less transmission of diseases Control on concentrate intake

• Monitoring/ identification of health problems

Disadvantages

• Labour intensive Infrastructure

• Isolation - welfare issue

rearing systems - group  

• 10-20 calves per group (2-3m2/calve)

• Frequent grouping according to LW (competition)

• Possibility to use group feeding equipment

Advantages

• Less labour requirement

• Social behaviour (more natural)

Disadvantages

• Transmission of diseases/outbreaks

• Concentrate intake

• Age – Development – variability

Aims of heifer rearing period

• Period of higher growth (daily weight gain = 700 – 800g/d)

• Adequate weigh gain rates, up to 80 – 90% mature weight of the herd, to avoid problems at calving and post calving

• Reach puberty at/before 12 months

• Get pregnant at/before 15 months

• Calve at/before 24 months (Optimum BCS – 1kg BW → 5kg milk)

• Express potential milk production

• Start cycling and become pregnant < 80 days post-calving

• Lowest possible cost

dairy - genomics

• Uses DNA information to predict genetic merits of bulls or cows

• Main impact of genomics:

  • Reduction of generational interval

  • Increase rate of genetic gain

Common diseases affecting dairy cattle

1. Mastitis

2. Reproduction diseases

3. Lameness

Milk fever (hypocalcemia)

• Low blood Ca (Ca imbalance)

• General muscular weakness, circulatory collapse, coma and potentially death

• Older and high producing cows more at risk

Treatment:

• Ca borogluconate

Subclinical acidosis

• Diet-originated condition

• Low forage: high concentrate diets

• Abrupt changes in diet

• Low effective fibre (particle size)

• High quality pasture in spring can create conditions despite adequate fibre contents

• Indicators: cows not eating; <50% ruminating; low milk fat%; foamy faeces

dairy cow - lameness

key risk factors

• Poor dairy shed entrance and/or exit design slowing cow flow

• Stockmanship: human actions altering normal walking behaviour of herd

• Rough surfaces and long walking distances contributing to excessive wear or trauma to hooves

• Herd management for example:

  • Nutrition – feed and use of feed pads

  • Management in wet conditions – use of standoff areas

dairy - types of lameness

• white line disease 

• sole bruising 

• sole injury 

• axial wall crack 

• digital dermatitis - interdigital skin infection

• foot rot - bacterial infection 

to qualify as high quality - milk must be 

• compositional complete 

• free from off flavours and odours 

• free from detectable drug residues, added water or adulterants 

• low in total bacterial count 

• low somatic cell counts 

mastitis

bacterial infection in udder

• high SCC is indicator of mastitis 

• severe clinical

• acute clinical

• mild clinical

• chronic

• subclinical

pathogens

• Streptococcus uberis

• Streptococcus bovis