Chapter 3 - Race and Ethnicity

Exam 1

Statistics

• More than 1 million people enter the United States each year.

• Most- from Latin America, then Asia. (in 2050 they will be the largest)

• 52 % of the immigrant population- female

• In 2025: ~52 million foreign-born people in the U.S.

: About the same number of people have at least one parent born abroad.

• Immigrants today account for 15% of the U.S. population, nearly triple the share

(4.7%) in 1970.

• More than 14 million unauthorized immigrants living within the US (2024)

Race

A group of people who share inherited physical traits such as skin color, hair texture and body shape. (Our Biology)

Ethnicity

Who share a common culture

Minority

Is s a racial or ethnic group that often experiences prejudice and discrimination

5 characteristics of minority groups:

• 1. Distinguishing physical and cultural traits

• 2. Unequal treatment/less opportunities

• 3. Membership -involuntary (you are born into it)

• 4. Strong group solidarity

• 5. Endogamy- Marriage within one’s own group

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a certain category of people.

Discrimination

Unfair & harmful action against people based on their group membership.

Racism

an ideology which holds that one race is inherently superior/inferior to another.

***Income inequality based on

race & ethnicity

African Americans (AA): median income

The median income for AA households-$56,020

(Whites - $92,530). Every dollar earned by White households, AAs earned ~ 61 cents. 39% less than Whites (2024).

Reasons ***Income inequality based on race & ethnicity (AA)

a. Historical and ongoing discrimination:

Decades of discrimination and workplace bias limit access to high-paying jobs, promotions, and leadership roles

• b. Unequal access to quality education:

Structural barriers (underfunded schools, segregation, fewer resources) reduce educational attainment, limiting access to high-paying jobs and affecting lifetime

earnings.

• c. High unemployment or, underemployment:

Many work in low-wage, unstable, or part-time jobs, and job losses from declining manufacturing/industrial jobs contribute to income inequality.

Hispanic Americans (HA) Median income

The median family income –about $70,950. Every dollar earned by White households, Hispanic Americans earned ~77 cents. 23% lower than Whites. (2024)

Reasons ***Income inequality based on race & ethnicity (HA)

Reasons:

a. Educational Attainment: On average, HA have lower educational attainment due to structural barriers, which limits access to higher-paying professional jobs, contributes to lower income.

• Discrimination: Systemic discrimination & workplace biases contribute to wage disparities

• c. Limited English proficiency can limit job opportunities, advancement, and access to higher-paying jobs, contributing to lower income.

Asian Americans median income

The median family income for Asian households –highest.

$121,700. Earned about 131–132 cents. 31–32% higher than whites (2024)

Health and Race inequality:

:AA babies- twice as likely to die as does a white baby during their 1st year of life.

: AA mothers- over 3 times as likely to die during childbirth as white mothers.

: AA women- die about 3 years younger than white women

: AA men- die 5 years younger than white men.

White and AA Table of Infant Deaths, Maternal Death, Life Expectancy

Table

Infant Deaths/ Maternal Death /Life Expectancy

Male and Female

White 4.5 14.5 75.8 80

AA 10.9 50.3 70.3 73

(CDC 2023)

Institutional Discrimination (ID):

• Discrimination built into laws, policies, and rules of government and organizations

• Causes unequal outcomes for certain groups

Bank lending provides an excellent illustration of ID

—

Loan/mortgages

: In 2024, mortgage denial rates were highest for Black applicants (about 18–19%), followed by Hispanic/Latino applicants (around 14–16%), and lowest for White applicants (roughly 9–12%, depending on loan type).

:Earlier studies found that Black and Hispanic/Latino applicants are more likely to be denied mortgages than White applicants — up to 60% more likely, even with similar credit profiles

Institutional discrimination may include:

1.Segregation- Physical & social separation of categories of people.

2. Exclusion- Prohibiting or restricting the entry or participation of certain groups

Examples: 1882-1943: prohibited Chinese immigration.

PRWORA known as the welfare reform law - restricted legal immigrants’ access to assistance programs.

• 3. Expulsion - Forcing or by intimidation of people out of an area or society

Example: Post-9/11 backlash against Muslim and Arab communities.

• 4. Genocide- The systematic annihilation of one category of people by another.

Examples: Holocaust, Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar

Social Policies /Programs:

1. Cultural pluralism/Cultural Integrity

2. Using the legal system

Cultural pluralism/Cultural Integrity

a. Establish national, state, & local “cultural centers” that feature a group’s heritage.

b. Holding “ethnic appreciation days”

c. Teaching History- to help recognize the different racial and ethnic groups that are in the US

d. Teaching Foreign Languages

2. Using the legal system

—

Affirmative Action

Introduced by President JFK in 1961 but developed and enforced by President Johnson.

Affirmative Action - Policy or program that aims to increase opportunities for underrepresented groups by providing preferential treatment in employment, education, and government contracting

1961: Executive Order 10925 (President Kennedy-)

Prohibited employment discrimination in hiring based on race, color, national origin, or religion.

1964: Civil Rights Act-

Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin by private employers, agencies, and educational institutions receiving federal funds

***1965: Executive Order 11246

Signed by President Johnson

: Required government contractors to take affirmative action in hiring and employment

• Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission -

***Equal Employment Opportunity Commission -

To investigate complaints of discrimination and to recommend action to the Department of Justice

1967: Johnson’s EO 11246

Amended to include gender discrimination protection.

By the 1970s: Affirmative Action

: Extended to college admissions

: Used quota systems for minority students

: Goal: increase representation & reduce inequality

University of California v. Bakke (1978)

: Allen Bakke, a white applicant, denied admission

: Challenged racial quota system in medical school

: Supreme Court ruled: Quota system is illegal and unconstitutional

***Proposition 209 – California (1996)

: CA voters passed Proposition 209

: Prohibited consideration of race, ethnicity, or gender in public employment, education, & contracting.

Affirmative Action: Key Court Rulings ((2003–2023)

2003: U.S. Supreme Court struck down point system at University of Michigan.

2013: U.S. Supreme Court heard the case from Texas’s Abigail Fisher, ruling for strict

scrutiny of the use of race in university admissions.

2022: Harvard and North Carolina faced challenges admitting and enrolling

underrepresented minorities particularly African American males, Hispanics, and Native

Americans.

July 3, 2023: Supreme Court ruled against Affirmative Action in college admissions.