Studied by 26 people
Includes Cold War, Soviet Control of EE, Germany DS Parts C & D
Why was it surprising that the Allies and USSR were allies?
Clash in ideologies (Communism/Democracy)
Stalin believed that appeasement was useless, his own suspicions drove them apart
Britain and the US helped enemies of the USSR in the past (eg. Russian Civil War)
1920s communists persecuted in the US during the 'red scare'; - Britain blamed a general strike on communist agents
West upset with the USSR for signing the Nazi soviet pact
USSR wanted allies to launch a second military front against Germany; bitter that this did not happen until 1944.
How had the role of the US changed after WWII?
1930s: US followed a policy of isolationism (keeping out of Europe and world affairs)
Britain and France no longer large enough, rich enough, or strong enough to be world leaders anymore
1940s: Roosevelt turned away from isolationism, effectively opposing communism (believed the US responsible for world collaboration)
No more appeasement; from now on communist actions would be met with an American response.
What were the ideologies of the US?
Capitalist - business and property privately owned.
Democracy - government chosen in free elections
World's wealthiest country (but extremes of wealth and poverty)
Freedom from government control > equality
Alarmed by communist theory which included the spread of revolution
Believed that their policies were doing the right thing rather than serving own interests
Other countries should follow its way
What were the ideologies of the USSR?
Communist - business and property state owned
One party system elections featured only in those who belonged to the communist party
Economic superpower but general standard of living was lower than the US (but employment and extreme poverty rare)
Individual rights < good of society as a whole
Role of the communist state was to spread the revolution worldwide
Believed the US was selfishly building its economic empire and political influence Other countries should follow its way
What was the Yalta Conference?
February 1945
Clear Germany losing war
Discussion of what would happen after Germany's defeat
Attended by Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill
Met at Yalta
What were the Territorial agreements of the Yalta Conference?
Germany to be divided into Four Zones of Influence: American, British, French and Soviet (Capital: Berlin, inside the Soviet zone.)
Countries liberated from Germany to be allowed free elections choose their own governments (although USSR had a different view of 'democracy')
Countries liberated from Germany have emergency government; included all anti Nazi groups
Eastern Europe should be 'a soviet sphere of influence'
What were the agreements of the Yalta Conference regarding people?
Germans living in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia would be sent back to Germany
War criminal responsible for the concentration camps and genocide to be punished; Nazi Party to be banned
What were the other agreements at the Yalta Conference?
All would join the newly created United Nations Organisation formed to keep the peace after war
USSR agreed to enter war against Japan after Germany surrendered (in return for the land)
All parties would receive reparations from Germany
What had Stalin wanted that caused disagreement at Yalta?
Stalin wanted to move the border of the USSR further west into Poland (similar to what it received in the Nazi-Soviet Pact)
Stalin concerned over security of Russia: Soviet Pact and ensure Poland had a government friendly towards Russia
What had Churchill and Roosevelt believed to cause disagreement at Yalta?
Did not support this but there was a little they could: USSRs troops already controlled Poland and Eastern Germany
Churchill and Roosevelt difficult decision: what would happen in Poland would set pattern for the rest of Eastern Europe -Struck a deal with Stalin: accept his proposal if he agreed not to interfere in Greece where the British were attempting to stop the communists from taking over
What was the Potsdam Conference?
July-August 1945
Attended by Truman, Stalin, Churchill and Atlee
What happened between Yalta and Potsdam?
USSR liberated much of Eastern Europe but did not withdraw its troops
A Communist government set up in Poland against its wishes;
Roosevelt (died) replaced by vice president, Harry Truman: more anti-Comminst than Roosevelt
Churchill (lost elections) replaced by Clement Attlee midway though - did not have the same authority as Churchill;
Why had Potsdam had more tension?
Conference dominated by Truman/ Stalin rivalry (distrust)
US successfully tested atomic bomb - did not inform Stalin until Potsdam undermining trust between the two (although, probably not a surprise thanks to spies)
With Germany defeated, the Allies were no longer united by a common enemy
What were the agreements of the Potsdam Conference?
Germany would be divided as agreed at Yalta (Division of Berlin into four zones as well)
Reparations (see above)
Poland's eastern border would be moved west to the rivers Oder and Neisse (reduction of the size of Germany)
The Nazi Party was banned and its leaders would be tried as war criminals
Germans living in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia would be sent back to Germany
What were the disagreements at Potsdam?
Dominated by rivalry/suspicion between Truman and Stalin
Truman had atom bomb and attempted to assert his authority, Stalin would not allow himself to be bullied
Stalin wanted to cripple Germany; Truman did not want to repeat Versailles - wanted Germany rebuilt
Stalin wanted to impose heavy reparations on Germany - aprx. 20m Russians dead and USSR devastated; Truman did not want to repeat Versailles
Compromise: Allies would take reparations from the zones they controlled
Truman was unhappy about Soviet 'sphere of influence' and adopted a 'get tough' attitude towards Stalin.
What was the Iron Curtain?
Term Churchill used to describe the political boundary dividing Europe east and west from the end of WWII in 1945
Eastern Europe now under increasing control of Soviet sphere of influence
What was Cominform?
Communist Information Bureau
Created to coordinate work of communist parties in Eastern Europe
Leaders regularly brought to Moscow to be instructed by Stalin
Allowed Stalin to keep a close eye on them
Independent leaders replaced by ones loyal to Stalin
How did Stalin tighten his grip in East Germany?
Given control of the eastern zone after WWII
Run by Red Army until creation of German Democratic Republic
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Poland?
Communists joined coalition government
1947: Became leaders after they forced non-communist leader into exile
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Czechoslovakia?
1945: Left-wing coalition won elections
1946: Communists became largest single party, but still a coalition
1948: Position threatened, banned other parties; made Czechoslovakia communist, one party state.
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Hungary?
1947: Communists became largest single party
1947 Elections: Imprisoned opposition and attacked Church leaders
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Romania?
1945: Communist elected Prime Minister in left-wing coalition. - 1947: Communists abolish the monarchy
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Yugoslavia?
1945: Marshal Tito (led war-time resistance against Nazis) elected president
Wanted to apply communism in his own way
1948: Expelled from Cominform
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Bulgaria?
1945: Left-wing coalition won elections -Communist members executed leaders of other parties
How did Stalin tighten his grip in Albania?
Post war: Communist gained power
Nationalist resistance movements opposed Axis forces; little opposition during war (communists)
End of War: Strong communist movements had backing of Yugoslavia and USSR
How did Stalin tighten his grip in France and Italy?
Both France and Italy had strong Communist parties
Belonged to Cominform.
How did the West react to the spread of Communism in eastern Europe?
Alarmed: Stalin's take-over of eastern Europe.
Accepted: Soviet security needed friendly governments in eastern Europe.
Agreed: eastern Europe to be a Soviet 'sphere of influence'
Did not expect: Complete communist domination; Felt it possible to have governments that were democratic and friendly to USSR
Stalin: saw policy in eastern Europe as making himself secure, - Truman: only saw the spread of communism.
What was the period of the Cold War?
1946: Wartime alliance replaced with mutual suspicion and accusations
US/USSR publicly spoke of the threat of war and began increasing their stock of weapons
US/USSR took every opportunity to criticise the policies or the plans of the other
Atmosphere of tensions and blame
'Cold war' was to last for the next 40 years
No fighting (thus 'cold' war) but US/USSR threatened military confrontation and sent troops and/ or advisers to help other states or groups
What happened in Greece Post WWII?
1944: Germans retreat; 2 groups want power (Monarchist/Communist)
Both involved in resistance against the Nazis
Communist: Greece = Soviet Republic
Monarchist = Return of King
1945: Churchill sends British troops to 'restore order' and 'supervise free elections'
British supported monarchists and king was returned to power.
USSR protested to UN; UN takes no action
Communist attempt to take it by force; resutling in a Civil War
Britain retreats: can not afford war but US paid for some troops to stay
What was the Truman Doctrine?
Change in American attitude to world politics
USA prepared to send money, equipment and advice to any country which was threatened by a communist take-over.
Truman accepted eastern Europe now communist
Aim: to stop communism from spreading any further
Policy known as containment
What was the Marshall Plan?
European Recovery Program
Truman: Communism succeeded when people faced poverty and hardship
General George Marshall sent to assess economic condition
Europe owed $11.5 billion to US; still extreme shortage of all goods; Most countries are still rationing bread.
Winter 1947: Coal shortages n Britain; all electricity turned off for a period each day
Churchill: 'a rubble heap, a breeding ground of hate'
Marshall estimated that it would take about $17 billion to rebuild Europe
What happened in Congress regarding the Marshall Plan?
December 1947: Truman put his plan to congress
Congress refused to grant money
Americans concerned about Trumans involvement in foreign affairs
What happened in Czechoslovakia?
Ruled by coalition government (included communists)
Tried to pursue policies of independent of Moscow
March 1948: Anti soviet leaders purged, one pro American minister dead (suspected murder)
What were the consequences of Czechoslovakia?
Congress accepted Marshall Plan and made $17 billion available over a period of 4 years
What was the positive perception of the Marshall Plan?
Extremely generous (unlikely accomplish on their own for a long time)
US offering free money
What was the negative perception of the Marshall Plan?
Served self interest
Stop the spread of communism
Show that their system of government was better
Open new markets for American goods (needed European trade to be healthy and wanted to avoid another worldwide slump like the Depression)
More allies
What did Stalin think of the Marshall Plan?
Suspicious: refused to have anything to do with it
Forbade any of the Soviet-controlled Eastern European countries from applying for aid
Believed Marshall Plan anti-communist; would weaken control in eastern Europe
US trying to show their system more successful
Dominate Europe by making it dependant on US dollars
Soviets: plan was the first step in creating a military alliance that would wage war on the USSR
What was Comecon?
Council for mutual Economic Assistance
Communist alternative/ response to Marshall Plan
Eastern Europe provides raw materials to USSR and the USSR manufactured goods to them
Aims:
encourage economic development in Eastern Europe
prevent trade with the West
What did the Allies do in their 'Zones of influence'?
Britain, US and France merge zones into one (Trizonia)
Created a new common currency (the Deutschmark) to boost the economy (as the old currency was basically worthless)
Set up a German assembly and constitution.
What did Stalin think of the Allies changes to their 'Zones of influence'?
Temporary zones of influence looking less permanent
Strong, united prosperous Germany worried Stalin
Feared new ideas and currency would spread to Soviet Zone and undermine his efforts to weaken Germany
Believed the west creating a permanently divided Germany; allowed US troops to remain
How did Stalin respond to the Allies changes to their 'Zones of influence'?
June 1948: Stalin blocked supply routes (roads, railways, canals) connecting western areas to Berlin
USA ram roadblocks or railway blocks; could be seen as an act of war
Stalin expected Truman to announce withdrawal; give Soviets control over Berlin; propaganda victory
Wanted to make city dependant on USSR and force city to join them
How did the Allies respond to the Berlin Blockade?
Berlin Airlift: Truman ordered that aircraft should fly supplies into Berlin
11 month operation; Stalin lifted the Blockade in May 1949
24 hour operation
If US challenge blockade; act of war but do nothing, Berliners starve and they lose city
Test of the containment policy
"Operation vittles"
Still shortages
1949: Stalin eventually reopened communications
What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
Powerful Symbol: Berlin symbol of Cold War and flashpoint
PR victory for West: Demonstrated commitment to containment
1949: Germany divided: Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the eastern zone became the German democratic republic (EG)
Pro-western, anti-commubist government elected in West Germany; exactly what Stalin didn't want
Germany divided for the next 41 years; Berlin became a symbols of the Cold War tensions
Pattern for confrontation: proxy wars and suspicion
What was NATO?
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Formed 1949
Members promised to maintain their ability to resist attacks and to help each other if attacked
What was the Warsaw Pact?
Response to NATO engulfing West Germany
Promised to defend each other if attack and not to interfere in internal affairs
Formed 1955
How did the Soviet Union seize control in Eastern Europe (Political Vacuum and Cominform)?
Political vacuum after WWII; USSR assisted communist parties win power
Cominform used to ensure eastern Europe followed same policies as USSR
Became one-party states; other parties declared illegal
Secret police used to silence opponents
How did the Soviet Union seize control in Eastern Europe (Law and Order)?
Imprisonment of non communists who criticise the government
Censorship of newspapers
Law and order needed to be restored after WWII; provided excuse to station Soviet troops in Eastern Europe
How did the Soviet Union seize control in Eastern Europe (Economies and Comecon)?
1964: Comecon set up banks in socialist countries; provided the USSR with a market to sell its goods to
Guaranteed cheap supply of raw materials (eg. Poland forced to sell coal to USSR at 1/10 market price)
Lack of consumer goods; geared towards the USSR's needs
Economies were shattered and need to be rebuilt
Followed policies of the USSR; took over industry and factories/ workers told what to produce
Comecon used to ensure that eastern Europe traded with the USSR; aid promised to those that cooperated
How did the Soviet Union seize control in Eastern Europe (Defence and Resources)?
Publicly, Stalin wanted control of Eastern Europe to defend the USSR from another attack from the West
Later policies suggest that he also wanted to benefit from the wealth and resources gained by this takeover
Why had the Soviets takeover brought hope to some?
USSR achieved amazing industrial growth before WWII; perhaps same could be achieved in Eastern Europe
USSR emerged from WWII as world superpower; could offer stability and security
Faced with food shortages and poverty, some hoped for great things under the communists
How did Soviet control impact peoples freedom and protests?
Countries with free speech and democratic governments lost right to criticise the government
Censorship of newspapers
Non communists put in prison for criticising government
Forbidden to travel to countries in western Europe
Protests (eg. East Germany 1953) crushed by security forces.
How did Soviet control impact peoples wealth?
1945-1955: eastern European economies did recover but wages in eastern Europe below wages in other countries
Short of coal to heat their houses
Clothing and shoes were very expensive.
Eastern Europe forbidden to apply for Marshall aid
How did Soviet control impact consumer goods?
No consumer goods (radios, electric kettles or televisions)
Economies geared towards Soviet Union
Factories produced machinery or electric cables, not what ordinary people wanted
Eastern Europe experience shortages long after west
What did Khrushchev change? What didn't he change?
Ended USSR's long feuds with China and Yugoslavia
Talked of peaceful co-existence with the West
Made plans to reduce expenditure on arms
Attended the first post war summit between the USSR, USA, France and Britain in July 1955
Said he wanted to improve the living standards of ordinary citizens
Didn't change the Warsaw Pact
What was 'De-Stalinsation'?
Khrushchev's denouncing of Stalin's legacy
How did Khrushchev implement it?
Closed Cominform
Released thousands of political prisoners
Pulled troops from Austria
Invited Marshall Tito to Moscow
Dismissed Stalin's former Foreign Minister Molotov
Signalled to Eastern Europe that they would have greater independence
Wanted to return to more traditional communist agenda of Bolshevis under Lenin
'Secret Speech' at Congress of Communist Party- attacked Stalin as a tyrant and enemy of the people; criticised purges, persecution and the fear that existed
What had the Hungarians thought of Hungary between 1949-1956?
Led by a hard-line Communist Matyas Rakosi
Hungarians hated restrictions put on them by Rakosi
Lost freedom of speech
Fear of secret police
Resented presence of Soviet troops and officials in Hungary
Had Russian street signs, schools and shops
Had to pay for Soviet forces to be in Hungary
What happened during June 1956?
Group in Communist Party in Hungary opposed Rakosi
Rakosi appealed to Moscow for help; wanted to arrest 400 leading opponents
Moscow didn't back him; ordered Rakosi to retire due to 'health reasons'
New leader Erno Gero, was no more acceptable
What happened in Hungary, October 1956?
23 October: huge student demonstration: giant statue of Stalin in Budapest was pulled down
24 October: USSR allowed new government to be formed under well respected Imre Nagy
Soviet troops and tanks stationed in Hungary
Hungarians created 1000s of local councils to replace Soviet power
1000s of Hungarian soldiers from army defected to rebel cause with weapons
What did Nagy's government plan to do?
Hold free elections
Create impartial courts
Restore farmland to private ownership
Wanted total withdrawal of Soviet army from Hungary
Planned to leave Warsaw Pact and declare Hungary neutral in Cold War
Optimism that Eisenhower would support independent; Hungary with armed troops if necessary
What did Khrushchev think of these actions?
At first, Khrushchev seemed ready to accept some reforms
Could not accept Hungary leaving the Warsaw Pact
What happened November 1956?
Thousands of Soviet troops and tanks moved into Budapest Hungarians did not give in
Two weeks of fighting
About 3,000 Hungarians
7,000-8,000 Russians were killed
200,000 Hungarians fled into Austria to escape the Communist forces
What were the outcomes of Hungary 1956?
Khrushchev put Janos Kadar in place as leader
Took several months to crush all resistance
35,000 anti-Communist activists arrested; 300 were executed
Introduced some reforms demanded by Hungarian people; but did not waver on the membership of the Warsaw Pact
What happened during the 1960s in Czechoslovakia?
1967: Old Stalinist leader replaced by Alexander Dubček
Committed communist, but believed communism did not have to be as restrictive
Learned lessons of Hungarian uprising
Reassured Brezhnev that Czechoslovakia had no plans to pull out of the Warsaw pact or Comecon
What did Alexander Dubček propose?
Proposed policy of 'socialism with a human face'
Less censorship, more freedom of speech, reduction inactivities of secret police
Censorship eased, opponents able to criticise failings of communist rules
Period known as The Prague Spring due to new ideas appearing everywhere
Radical ideas emerge by summer; talk of allowing another political party (the Social Democratic Party) to be set up
What did the Soviets think of what was happening in Czechoslovakia?
Soviet Union suspicious of changes taking place in Czechoslovakia as well as other communist leaders in eastern Europe
Worried new ideas might spread
Brezhnev came under pressure from East German and Polish leaders to clamp down on reform in Czechoslovakia
What did the USSR do in the Summer of 1968?
USSR tried various tactics to slow Dubček down
Intimidate Czechs → Soviet, Polish and East German troops performed public training exercises right on the Czech border
Thought about imposing economic sanctions → eg. cancelling wheat exports to Czechoslovakia
Didn't because thought that Czechs would ask for help from the West
How did the USSR respond in July 1968?
July → USSR held summit conference with Czechs
Dubček agreed not to allow a new Social Democratic Party but insisted on keeping most reforms.
Tension eases
What did the USSR do during August 1968?
20 August 1968 → Soviet tanks moved into Czechoslovakia
Little violent resistance
Dubček removed from power
Experiment in socialism with a human face had not failed, simply proved unacceptable to other communist countries
What were the outcomes of Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring 1968?
Dubček not executed
Gradually downgraded
Sent to be ambassador to Turkey; expelled from Communist Party
Photographs showing him as leader 'censored'
Clear that reforming ideas regarded as threat to communist rule by all communist leaders
Leaders feared that their own people would demand the same freedom that Dubcek had allowed in Czechoslovakia
What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?
Essentials of communism defined as a one party system
To remain a member of the Warsaw Pact
What was the impact of Hungary on eastern Germans?
Only way of escaping was to leave
Some wanted to leave for political reasons; many wanted to leave for economic reasons
Living conditions in West Berlin looked much better to people in East Berlin
1950s: East Berliners were able to travel into West Berlin and West Germany freely; Tempting to leave East Germany (harsh Communist regime, hardline leader, Walter Ulbricht) Late 1950s: Thousands leaving; Defectors often highly skilled workers or well qualified managers
Communist government could not afford to lose these people; undermined communism
What was the 'solution'?
1961: USA had new president (Kennedy)
Khrushchev thought he could bully Kennedy and chose to pick a fight over Berlin
Insisted that Kennedy withdraw US troops from city; Kennedy refused
2am, 13 August 1961: East German soldiers erected barbed wire barrier along border; replaced by concrete wall
All crossing points sealed, except Checkpoint Charlie
Chaos ensued; border guards kept a lookout for anyone crossing the wall - had order to shoot defectors
Hundreds killed over the next three decades
What were the outcomes of the Berlin Wall?
October 1961: US diplomats and troops crossed regularly into East Berlin to find out how the Soviet would react
27 October: Soviet tanks pulled up to Checkpoint Charlie and refused to allow any further access to the East
After 18 hours, the tanks slowly pulled back
Everyone relieved - Khrushchev ordered Ulbricht to avoid any actions that would increase tension
Wall stayed, symbol of division
Communists presented the wall as a protective shell around East Berlin
West presented it as a prison wall
What happened in Poland Between 1970-1981?
Late 1970: Polish economy hit crisis (1979 worst year) July 1980: Government announced increased price of meat August 1980: Workers at Gdansk shipyard, led by Lech Walesa, put forward 21 demands to Governments (incl. free trade unions and right to strike)
Started free trade union called Solidarity
August 30 1980: Government agreed to all 21 of Solidarity's demand
September 1980: Solidarity's membership grew to 3.5 million
October 1980 Solidarity membership 7 million; officially recognised by Government
January 1981 Membership of Solidarity reached peak at 9.4 million; more than a third of all workers in Poland
Why had Solidarity been successful?
Union strongest in industries most important to Government ; Shipbuilding and heavy industry
General strike in these industries would have devastated Poland's economy
Union popular, almost half of all workers belonged. Lech Walesa kind of a folk hero
Solidarity had support of Catholic church; strong in Poland
How had Solidarity been in its early stages?
Early stages: Union not seen by its members as an alternative to the communist party
More than 1 million members (30 percent) of the Communist Party joined Solidarity
Lech Walesa careful in negotiations with the government; avoid provoking a dispute that might bring the Soviet Union in
What did the Government do in response to Solidarity in its early stages?
Government praying for time; hoped Solidarity break into rival factions
Drew up plans for Martial rule (rule by the army)
Solidarity gained support in the West that neither Hungarian or Czech rising had
Walesa well known in Western media; people in west brought Solidarity badges to show support
Scale of movement ensured that Soviet Union treated Polish crisis cautiously
What happened in February 1981 in Poland?
February 1981: situation changed; civilian prime minister "resigned" and leader of army (general Jaruzeleski) took over
People expected Soviet Union to "send in the tanks"
Solidarity congress produced an "open letter"; campaigning not only for their own rights but for the rights of workers throughout the communist bloc
Proclaimed that the Poles were fighting "For Your Freedom and For Ours"
How did Jaruzelski respond and how did Brezhnev follow that up?
Jaruzelski and Walesa negotiated to form a government of national understanding
December 1981: after nine months of tense relationships, the government broke down; communist government acts.
Brezhnev ordered Red Army to carry out "training manoeuvres" on Polish border.
Jaruzelski introduced martial law.
Put Walesa and almost 10,000 other Solidarity leaders in prison
He suspended solidarity.
Why would the USSR want to crush Solidarity?
Solidarity was acting as a political party
Secret tapes of Solidarity meeting setting up a new provisional government without Communist Party
Had many different factions; some more hardline than others
Strikes continued long after leadership order them to stop
Soviet Union had seen enough; situation in Poland gone too far
What state was Poland in during 1981?
Poland sinking into chaos; Almost all poles felt impact of food shortages
April 1981: Rationing introduced
Wages increased by less than inflation
Unemployment rising
Solidarity tumbling into chaos
What was the significance of Solidarity?
Highlighted failure of Communism to provide good living standards
Undermined Communism's claim to be a system which benefited ordinary people
Highlighted inefficiency and corruption
Showed that there were organisations capable of resisting Communist governments
Showed that Communist governments could be threatened by 'people power'
If Soviet policy were to change Communist control would not survive; if military force not used, communist control seemed shaky
What problems did the USSR face?
Weak economy: spending too much on arms race; stuck in an expensive and fruitless war in Afghanistan
Believed communism should improve life for people; offended that Soviet-made goods were poor; living standards higher in the west
Work standards slipping: people no longer worked hard out of loyalty or fear; lack of incentive; sloppy
Corruption hurt production: alcoholism a problem - lowering production and average life expectancy of soviet men.
No new ideas on how to run economy since Stalin: leaders followed same policies and ignored warning signs of trouble
No loyalty to the government: citizens had lost faith in leaders as the west got richer
Corruption problem: Many party members lived in luxury while people lived in poverty
What reforms occurred in the USSR under Gorbachev?
Glasnost (openness): encouraging honest, open debate on government policy and problems facing the USSR; allowed more details about the past to be known by the public; people who criticised the government should not be persecuted.
Perestroika (restructuring): allowed people to buy/sell for profit, private ownership; reduced state control over imports/exports; trade with non-Eastern bloc countries and foreign investment.
Defence: cut spending on the military; withdrew forces from Afghanistan.
How did the US (Reagan) react?
Adopted "get tough" policy against USSR
Knew USSR couldn't match the US in the arms race and Gorbachev cut back here too
What were the consequences of these reforms?
Promoted trust and cooperation not confrontation
Improved relations with the US meant the USSR felt less threatened and felt less of a need to control Eastern Europe.
Gorbachev's changes were difficult for hardline Communists to accept
Economic reforms did not work as expected as people wanted too much too quickly
Corruption made change difficult.
What policies were introduced to the USSR under Gorbachev?
Main focus USSR: didn't want to be distracted by maintaining control over Eastern Europe; now responsible for its own fate
Told then to reform; communism not doomed; believed it could provide better healthcare, education and transport; renew communism so it could match capitalism
Believed USSR was out of date in its thinking; people should be allowed to say who ruled them
Gorbachev's reforms gave people hope; demanded the same in their countries
Gorbachev stated would no longer force to support Communist governments in the East
What did the Nazis want to (re)build?
A Strong Germany
Strong leadership (Kaiser)
Strong army → able to restore Germany's military pride
A racially pure Germany
Aryan supremacy
Wanted to remove Jews and other non-Aryans from any position of leadership
A People's Community (Volk)
Nazis wanted people to give their hearts and minds to Hitler
Contribution to Germany's more important than their own fulfilment
What did the Nazis do in Northeim to initially gain control?
Police arrested opposition councillors
Stationed SA officers all around room; refused to let opposition speak
Searched all houses in Northeim
'Looking for illegal guns and ammunition'
Ransacked homes and arrested 22 people
7 taken to local concentration camps
What did the Nazis implement into Northeim?
Ordered Gleichschaltung (coordination) of all organisations
4 Sports clubs combined into 1 Nazi-run sports club
Singing groups and choirs combined as Nazi-led 'Mixed choral singing club of 1933'
Boycotts of Jewish Businesses
Newspaper campaign told Northeimers not to shop at Jewish-run businesses
SA men stationed outside to turn people away
How did the Nazis affect unemployment and propagandise in Northeim?
Ended Unemployment
June 1933: 500 registered unemployed; within 3 months there were none
Put to work repairing roads and clearing woods around town Socialists dismissed from jobs which were given to Nazis
Unemployed socialists offered physically demanding work in local quarry
Only if they agreed to give up politics
Produced Relentless Propaganda
Ceremonial burning of the Weimar flag
Book burning to destroy unacceptable books
Torchlight parade → Joined by 3000 people
What 4 Tools of Control did the Nazis use in Germany?
The Gestapo
The SS
Concentration Camps -Police and Courts
What was the Gestapo?
Secret state police commanded by Reinhard Heydrich
Could arrest citizens and send them to concentration camps without trial
Believed to have a network of 'informers' listening in on people's conversations
Germans believed that Gestapo was much more powerful than it actually was → ordinary Germans informed on each other because they thought gestapo would find out anyway
What was the SS?
A paramilitary group directly loyal to Hitler
It had 1 million staff by 1944 led by Heirich Himmler
SS men were aryans→ highly trained and totally loyal to Hitler
Under Himmler→ the SS had the main responsibility for crushing opposition and carrying out Nazi racial policies
What were the Three Subdivisions of the SS?
The SD
integral security service -SD would investigate potential disloyalty within the armed forces or politically sensitive cases
The Death's Head units
Responsible for the concentration camps and transportation and murder of the jews
The Waffen-SS
Armoured regiments that fought alongside the regular army
As its power grew the SS set up its own courts →Around 200,000 germans were sent to concentration camps by these courts
What were the Concentration Camps?
Set up as soon as Hitler took power in 1933.
Makeshift prisons in disused factories and warehouses.
Jews, socialists, communists, trade unionists, churchmen and anyone else brave enough to criticise the Nazis ended up in these camps.
Run by SS Death's Head units.
How did the Nazis control the Police and Courts?
Top jobs in local police forces were given to high-ranking nazis reporting to Himmler
The police added political "snooping" to their normal law-and-order role.
Under strict instructions to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents.
Nazis appointed all the judges and sacked those they disapproved of.
Who was Joeseph Goebbels and what did he do?
Minister for enlightenment and propaganda
12 years of Nazi rule: Goebbels constantly kept finger on the pulse of public opinion and decided what German public should and shouldn't hear
What were the Nuremberg Rallies?
Huge rallies, marches, torch-lit processions and meetings
Took place the summer of each year
Bands, marches, flying displays and Hitler's brilliant speeches
Rallies showed German people that the power of the state and convinced them that every other german fully supported the Nazis
Organised to emphasise order.
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