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Empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue
the controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views for analyzing any given phenomenon
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
behavioral approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.
Biological Approach
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
Cognitive Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
Evolutionary Approach
An approach to psychology centered on ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.
humanistic approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
psychodynamic approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences.
Sociocultural Approach
An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.
Psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Cognitive Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Theory
A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
population
Every person that could be involved in a study.
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
placebo effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes.
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
American Psychological Association (APA)
professional organization representing psychologists in the United States.
International Review Board (IRB)
A committee designated to approve, monitor, and review experiments ranging from biology to psychology so that researchers do not break the principles in research.
International Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
A committee that is responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals that involve the use of animals.
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