AP Psychology Ch 7 Cognition - Unit 2 (updated for 25/26 SY)

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

Working memory model

describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components; suggests that short-term memory is dynamic and multifaceted

Primary memory system

hippocampus

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonolgical loop

holds and retains verbal information. rehearsal. uniquely human characteristic. thought to evolve for learning of new languages.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Levels of processing model

the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered

Shallow encoding

encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds

Deep encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

Structural, phonemic, and semantic

three levels of processing

Mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Categories

clusters of interrelated concepts

Hierarchies

A Social structure that organizes ranks people such as in a class system.

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

Distributed Practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Primacy effect

tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows

Recency effect

tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

memory retention

ability to recall information

Autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

Recognition

the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

Mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

State-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Forgetting curve

a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

Encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

Imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

Structural processing

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information.

phonemic processing

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

semantic processing

processing the meaning of information for a deeper level of memory encoding

recall

the memory process of retrieving stored information from long-term memory without the use of any external cues or hints

automatic processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks.