AP U.S. Government and Politics: Key Concepts and Foundations

Public Goods

Goods or services provided by the government that everyone can use and no one can be excluded from, like national defense or clean air. Because people can benefit without paying, they create free-rider problems.

Separation of Powers

The Constitution divides government power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Federalism

A system where power is shared between the national government and state governments. Each level has its own responsibilities and authority.

Republicanism

A system of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. It emphasizes civic participation and the common good.

Monarchy

A form of government ruled by a king or queen, usually by hereditary succession. Power may be absolute or constitutional.

Government

The institutions and processes through which public policies are made and enforced. It maintains order, provides services, and protects rights.

Culture Wars

Political conflicts over social and moral issues such as abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and religion in public life. These debates often divide citizens along ideological lines.

Mass Media

Forms of communication that reach large audiences, including TV, radio, newspapers, and the internet. They shape political knowledge and awareness.

Media Effects

The influence media coverage has on public opinion, political attitudes, and behavior. This includes agenda-setting and framing.

Fake News

Deliberately false or misleading information presented as legitimate news. It can distort public understanding and trust.

Public Opinion

The collective attitudes and beliefs of citizens about politics and government. It influences elections and policymaking.

Latent Opinion

Opinions people hold but have not yet expressed or formed strongly. These can become active when triggered by events.

Social Desirability Bias

When survey respondents give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than truthful. This can skew polling data.

Ideological Polarization

The widening gap between political ideologies, especially liberals and conservatives. It often leads to gridlock and partisan conflict.

Issues

Public policy topics or problems that government must address, such as healthcare or immigration.

Norms

Informal, unwritten rules guiding political behavior. They shape how officials act beyond formal laws.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution who favored a strong national government. Key figures included Hamilton, Madison, and Jay.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution who feared centralized power and wanted stronger state governments. They pushed for a Bill of Rights.

Party Principle

The core beliefs and policy goals that define a political party's platform.

Spoils System

A practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters after an election victory. It was common in the 19th century.

Party Coalitions

Alliances of diverse groups united under one political party. They help parties win elections.

Realignment

A major, lasting shift in voter loyalty from one party to another, often after critical elections.

Caucus

A meeting of party members to select candidates or decide policy positions, often at the local or state level.

Conference

A gathering of party legislators (ex: in Congress) to coordinate policy, messaging, and legislative strategy.

Free Riders

Individuals who benefit from public goods without contributing to their cost. This makes collective action harder.

Collective Action

Efforts by groups to achieve shared objectives, often requiring coordination and resources.

Politics

The process by which power is gained and policy decisions are made in society.

Libertarianism

An ideology emphasizing maximum individual freedom and minimal government intervention in both economic and personal matters.

Conservatism

An ideology favoring tradition, limited government, free markets, and gradual change.

Liberalism

An ideology supporting government action to promote equality, protect rights, and provide social services.

Liberty

Freedom from excessive government control, a core American political value.

Faction

A group united by shared interests that may act against the common good, as warned by Madison.

Trustworthy News

Journalism that is fact-checked, evidence-based, and accountable to professional standards.

Boston Tea Party

A 1773 protest where colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbor to oppose taxation without representation.

Shays' Rebellion

An armed farmer uprising (1786-87) protesting debt and taxes, exposing weaknesses of the Articles government.

Stamp Act

A 1765 British tax on printed materials that angered colonists and fueled revolutionary sentiment.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. governing document that created a weak national government with most power in the states.

First Amendment

Protects freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition from government interference.

Federalist Papers

A series of essays defending the Constitution and explaining its principles to the public.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution.

Compromises (Constitution)

Key deals included the Great Compromise (bicameral Congress), 3/5 Compromise, and commerce/slave trade agreements.

Checks and Balances

Mechanisms allowing each branch to limit the others, preventing abuse of power.

Marbury v. Madison

1803 case establishing judicial review, giving courts power to strike down laws.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document asserting colonial independence and natural rights philosophy.

Brutus 1

An Anti-Federalist essay arguing the Constitution created an overly powerful national government.

Federalist 10

Madison argued large republics control factions better than small ones.

Federalist 51

Explains separation of powers and why ambition must counter ambition.

Amendments

Formal changes or additions to the Constitution; the first 10 are the Bill of Rights.

Political Socialization

The lifelong process by which people develop political beliefs through family, school, media, etc.

Mass Surveys

Large public opinion polls used to measure attitudes.

Sampling / Sampling Error

Using a subset of a population / the margin of inaccuracy in results.

Political Parties

Organizations that nominate candidates and seek to control government.

DNC / RNC

National leadership organizations of the Democratic and Republican parties.

Party Systems

Historical periods defined by dominant parties and voter coalitions (ex: New Deal system).

Ideology

A coherent set of political beliefs about government and society.

PAC / 527

Organizations that raise and spend money to influence elections, often for specific issues or candidates.

Minor Parties

Smaller parties that influence issues but rarely win major offices.

Common Sense

Thomas Paine's pamphlet persuading colonists to support independence.

Constitutional Emphasis

Refers to whether power is viewed as shared, state-centered, or national-centered.

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 case affirming implied powers and federal supremacy over states.

Dual Federalism

Early system where state and national governments operated in separate spheres.

Cooperative Federalism

State and federal governments work jointly on policies and programs.

Creative Federalism

Expansion of national power through grants and programs (1960s).

New Federalism

Effort to return power and discretion back to states (Nixon-Reagan era).

Fiscal Federalism

Use of federal funding (grants, mandates) to influence state policy.