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Stratification
a system that puts categories of people into a hierarchy; people higher up have more access to power, resources, and the means to success
Examples of Stratification Systems
slavery, class system, gender, race, religion
Social Mobility
the ability of individuals to move up or down the social ladder in terms of status, wealth, education, or occupation in their lifetime
Gilbert's Class Structure
underclass, working poor, working class, middle class, upper middle class, and capitalists (split into three sections of 2 each - lower, majority, and privileged classes)
Social Class
a group of individuals who share a similar economic position
Key Indicators of Social Class
income, wealth, occupation, and education
Marx's Class Structure
Proletariat (workers) vs Bourgeoisie (large business owners/industrialists); peasantry (poor farmers and rural workers) and petite bourgeoisie (small business owners) are part of the Proletariat
Subjective Class Structure
4 tiers of lower, working, middle, and upper class; working and middle class are the largest sectors
Meritocracy
the belief that personal responsibility and individual effort are the sole determinants of success (all agency, no structure)
Functionalism
rich are rich because they do more important, highly skilled jobs
Cumulative Advantage
the rich get richer and the poor get poorer due to existing advantages for the rich and existing disadvantages for the poor
Economic Inequality
the measure of the difference/gaps between classes in the hierarchy measurements
Intersectionality
the way ascribed characteristics like race and gender are related to income/wealth gaps
Desmond's View of Poverty
the persistence of poverty is because of labor and consumer exploitation (undocumented workers are severely underpaid and banking is the most expensive for the poor through payday loans, overdraft fees, check cashing fees, etc.)
GINI Index
a numerical depiction of the degree of income or wealth disparity within a given population; positioned within a range from 0 to 1, where 0 signifies perfect equality and 1 denotes maximum inequality
Absolute Poverty
lacking the basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, and clothing
Relative Poverty
a condition where people lack the resources needed to meet the average standard of living in their society or community; poor in comparison in the eyes of others
Poverty Threshold
the minimum income level required to access the basic necessities of life (the US government defines this as $14,580 for a single person)
Functionalist Theory of Education
schools play critical & crucial roles in keeping society functioning properly
Manifest Functions
provide students with a specific set of skills (reading, writing, math, science, etc.)
Latent Functions
serve unintended purposes, like providing daily childcare, free meals, etc.
Conflict Theory of Education
schools perpetuate and reinforce social inequality and power imbalances within society
Achievement Ideology
success in education is primarily attained through hard work, dedication, and talent, rather than by factors such as socioeconomic background, race, or ethnicity
Social Reproduction
the process by which social structures, norms, and inequalities are passed down and perpetuated from one generation to the next
Social Capital
the benefits that arise from social networks, relationships, and connections within a community or society
Cultural Capital
the knowledge, skills, symbols, and resources that individuals acquire through socialization and education, which can confer social status, prestige, and advantages within a society
Socialization
the process of instilling lessons about class, race, & gender that uphold hierarchies
Hidden Curriculum
unofficial messages to students that teach students how they should behave, expect to be treated, and whose ideas are important; communicated through rules, routines, arrangements of classrooms, & interactions;
Sorting
the process of classifying students based on non-academic, non-merit characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity; tends to reproduce inequalities
Tracking
the process of sorting students into different groups based on academic characteristics (ability, achievement, or prospects)
Social Class in Schools
a student's _____ ____ affects their ability to learn (poverty, social and cultural capital, parent's intervention, & unequal funding of school districts)
Race & Ethnicity in Schools
segregation and inequality in discipline where Black/Latinx students receive harsher punishments ("school to prison" pipeline)
Gender in Schools
boys are allowed to call out in class, dominate discussion, etc. while girls are discouraged from studying math/science
Family
a group of people who are connected by blood, sexual relationship, or the law
Social Construction of the Family
nuclear family, extended kin networks (extended family), patrilineal/matrilineal (how names, relations, & properties are passed over generations), and marriage types (one spouse vs polygamy)
Nuclear Family
a White middle/upper class phenomenon in the 1950s American idea where a married couple and their children live together under one roof
Functionalist POV on the nuclear family
facilitates the reproduction of the next generation, socialization of children, meeting economic needs, satisfaction of sexual desires, emotional and psychological security
Marxist View on Family
the monogamous nuclear family emerged with capitalism (as a way to pass down accumulated wealth), producing inequality over generations; forcing women into a subordinate position working unpaid labor
Critiques on Nuclear Family
doesn't fulfill the needs of sexual satisfaction, & emotional and psychological security; one income can't economically sustain a family
Relationship between love and marriage
it was once seen as irrational to consider love in marriage (a pleasant by-product), but nowadays it is the foundation of the majority of marriages
Divorce
the termination of marriage; rates rose in the 1970s, but have declined recently
Blended Families
a family with a step-parent, step-sibling, or half-sibling
Cohabitation
the increasingly popular arrangement where two people live together in a domestic partnership without being legally married
Fertility
declining _____ rate overall; more delays in childbirth to age 30 and up
Family-friendly policies
Workplace or government initiatives supporting employees in balancing work and family
Parental Leave
time off from work for parents following childbirth or adoption, allowing bonding and childcare without risking employment
Universal Healthcare
healthcare system providing all residents access to medical services regardless of income or employment status
Free Childcare
government-funded or subsidized childcare services at little to no cost, aiding working parents and promoting early childhood development
Gendered Burden of Unpaid Work
the "second" shift where women bear the brunt of childcare and housework
Wages for Housework Campaign
the recognition and compensation of unpaid domestic labor, particularly housework & caregiving performed primarily by women within the household
Intimate Partner Violence
encompasses physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, & psychological aggression
State Violence
actions by governmental authorities causing harm or coercion towards individuals or groups
Deportation
the legal process of expelling individuals from a country, often due to immigration violations or criminal offenses
Incarceration
the confinement of individuals in prisons or detention facilities as punishment for criminal offenses or as part of immigration enforcement
Child Protective Services System
government agencies tasked with safeguarding the welfare of children, intervening in cases of abuse or neglect, and providing support services to families in need
Deviance
behaviors that violate social norms
Crime
behaviors that violate the law
Folkways
customs, traditions, & etiquette
Mores
fundamental, protected norms that reflect the morals and values of a social group
Laws
codified protected norms that require enforcement
Social Control
the ways societies try to influence members' behavior to prevent and sanction norm breaking & maintaining social order
Formal Social Control
punishment through policing & the legal system
Informal Social Control
the way society regulates behavior without the government (i.e. peer pressure, gossip, teasing, ostracization, etc.)
Stigma
social rejection experienced as a result of a certain characteristic or behavior considered norm-breaking
Moral Panic
over-heated, short-lived periods of intense social concern over an issue
Functionalist Theory on Deviance
deviance clarifies social norms and can lead to positive social change; strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviant
Strain Theory
the theory that when people can't achieve their goals through accepted means, they may turn to deviant behavior as an alternative way to meet those goals.
Differential Association
deviance is a learned behavior primarily learned through close personal contacts
Labeling Theory
the idea that calling someone deviant gives them that self-image, leading to more deviance (i.e. reinforced by things like job applications being denied because of criminal record)
Social Ecology Approaches
dense populations, poor housing conditions, & single-parent households are all correlated as neighborhoods with higher crime
Broken Window Theory
idea that small signs of disorder make larger crimes more likely
Control Theory
stronger ties to mainstream social groups & institutions (e.g. family, school, job) keep people from committing deviance or crime
Conflict Theory
the idea that dominant people see society filled with conflict and inequality, with different groups competing for their power and resources.
Violent Crime
Criminal acts involving force or threat against individuals, resulting in physical harm or injury
Property Crime
Criminal offenses involving theft, damage, or destruction of others' property
White-Collar Crime
non-violent criminal offenses committed by individuals or organizations in positions of power for financial gain, often involving fraud or deception
American Crime Decline Explanations
Improvements to the economy
Increased incarceration rate
Increased prevalence of immigration
End of the crack cocaine epidemic
Decline in lead exposure
Increased access to abortion
Explanations of America’s Increased Violence
A historical culture of violence
Prevalence of guns
High inequality
US Mass Incarceration
the expansion of imprisonment to a level not matched anywhere else in the world or at any point in US history
13th Amendment
the legislation abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude in the US, except as punishment for a crime
War on Drugs
government-led efforts to combat illegal drug epidemic; criticized for their disproportionate impact on marginalized communities
Prison Industrial Complex
the combination of government and private interests involved in the expansion and maintenance of the prison system, often criticized for prioritizing incarceration over rehabilitation and disproportionately affecting certain demographics.
Power
the ability to exercise one's will over others to make things happen
Authority
power that is recognized by a group/society over whom it is exercised
State
A compulsory political organization with continuous operations when its administrative staff successfully upholds a claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force to maintain order
Aristocracy
heads of state determined by hereditary succession
Authoritarian
power resides in leaders who are not freely chosen by citizens & who exercise arbitrary power that rests on fear/repression (popular participation in government is restricted)
Democratic States
("of the people") political power is distributed across all citizens equally
Direct Democracy
people directly participate in decision-making on all matters that affect them
Representative Democracy
people elect politicians to represent them in decision-making
Competitive Democracy
a political system where political parties compete for power through free and fair elections
Median Voter Theory
democratic governments end up with policies that reflect the desires of the voter in the "middle/moderate" of the issue
Elite Theory
policies reflect the preferences of a small group of elites since lawmakers come from higher-class backgrounds
Pluralism Theory
policies reflect the balance of power between various interest groups; interest groups compete with one another to influence government policies and decisions
Electoral College
a system where citizens vote for a group of electors from their state who are pledged to support a specific presidential candidate
Suffrage
the right to vote in political elections
Institutional Politics
the processes by which people assert influence in official and sanctioned ways (political parties, government agencies, international organizations like the UN)
Contentious Politics
collective demonstrations, strikes, rallies, and other forms of protest, through which individuals attempt to influence politics outside the official & accepted system
Shared Grievances
existing social problems that anger people (contribute to social movements)
Relative Deprivation
particular anger/frustration when a subset of society is worse off than others in terms of resources, rights, or status (contribute to social movements)