Introduction to Psychological Research Methods (OpenStax Psychology 2e – Chapter 2)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Chapter 2, "Research," of OpenStax Psychology 2e. Use these to review definitions and reinforce understanding of research methods, reasoning, experimental design, ethics, and data interpretation in psychology.

Research (in psychology)

A mandatory, systematic process of collecting empirical evidence to validate or refute claims and advance scientific knowledge.

Empirical

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be repeatedly observed regardless of the observer.

Inductive Reasoning

A logic process that draws general conclusions from specific observations (data → theory).

Deductive Reasoning

A logic process that predicts specific results from a general premise or theory (theory → prediction).

Theory

A well-developed, evidence-based set of ideas that explains observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable, and falsifiable statement about the relationship between two or more variables, often phrased as an “if-then” prediction.

Falsifiable

Capable of being shown to be incorrect through empirical evidence.

Scientific Method

An organized series of steps—formulating hypotheses, conducting research, analyzing data, and modifying theories—to study phenomena.

Clinical (Case) Study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual in an extreme or unique circumstance.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its real-world setting without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Observer Bias

A researcher’s expectations or preferences that skew observations to align with those expectations.

Survey

A data-collection technique involving a list of questions delivered on paper, electronically, or verbally to a sample of a population.

Archival Research

A method that uses existing records or data sets to answer research questions or identify patterns.

Longitudinal Research

A study design in which the same group of individuals is measured repeatedly over an extended time period.

Cross-Sectional Research

A study that compares multiple population segments (e.g., age groups) at a single point in time.

Attrition

Reduction in the number of research participants over time as some drop out of a study.

Correlation

A statistical relationship in which two variables change together; does not imply causation.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number from –1 to +1 indicating the strength and direction of a correlation between variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship in which both variables move in the same direction (both increase or both decrease).

Negative Correlation

A relationship in which variables move in opposite directions (one increases while the other decreases).

Confounding Variable

An unanticipated outside factor that simultaneously affects the variables of interest, potentially giving a false impression of causation.

Cause-and-Effect Relationship

A connection in which changes in one variable directly produce changes in another; can only be established via experimental design.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship actually exists.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, or remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Experimental Group

Participants who experience the manipulated independent variable in an experiment.

Control Group

Participants who do not receive the experimental manipulation, providing a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Manipulation

The deliberate change introduced to the experimental group’s environment or experience by the researcher.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations that unintentionally influence study outcomes.

Participant Bias

Participant expectations that influence their behavior and thus the study results.

Single-Blind Study

An experiment in which participants are unaware of their group assignment but researchers know.

Double-Blind Study

An experiment in which neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, controlling both experimenter and participant bias.

Placebo Effect

Improvement or change in participants solely due to their expectations, not the active ingredient of a treatment.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor manipulated or controlled by the researcher to examine its effect.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome factor measured by the researcher to see how it is influenced by the IV.

Population

The entire group of individuals a researcher wishes to understand or describe.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a population for participation in a study.

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, increasing representativeness.

Random Assignment

A procedure that assigns participants to experimental or control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences.

Quasi-Experimental Design

A study that compares groups without random assignment of participants to conditions; cannot establish true causation.

Statistical Analysis

Mathematical procedures that determine whether observed differences or relationships are likely due to chance.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Article

A research paper evaluated anonymously by experts before publication to ensure quality and reliability.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to verify its findings and assess reliability.

Reliability

The consistency or reproducibility of a measurement or research finding.

Inter-Rater Reliability

The degree of agreement among different observers recording the same event.

Validity

The extent to which a test or tool measures what it purports to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research proposals involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met.

Informed Consent

A process in which researchers inform participants about the study, risks, and their rights, and obtain voluntary agreement to participate.

Deception (in research)

Purposely misleading participants to maintain study integrity, permitted only when non-harmful and justified.

Debriefing

Post-study disclosure in which participants receive full information about the research purpose and procedures, especially when deception was used.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

An oversight body that reviews and monitors research involving non-human animals to ensure humane and ethical treatment.