Memory/Learning

Top Down Processing

When your brain interprets info using prior knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

When your brain builds understanding starting with raw inputs (i.e. 4 legged animal = dog).

Raw Materials

Basic pieces of sensory information your brain receives from the environment (Bottom-Up Processing).

Classical Conditioning

The conditioning where two things are like together causing a trigger to create a response (UCR & UCS, CR & CS); acquisition.

Classical Conditioning: Unconditional Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a reaction (i.e. food).

Classical Conditioning: Unconditional Response

The automatic reaction to a UCS; a reflex.

Neutral Stimulus

Something that does not cause a response AT FIRST.

Classical Conditioning: Acquisition

When learning has occurred; NS and UCS are paired over and over (i.e. bell+ food).

Classical Conditioning: Conditional Stimulus

The former neutral stimulus that now triggers a response (post acquisition, discovered by Ivan Pavlov).

Classical Conditioning: Conditional Response

The learned response to the CS

Classical Conditioning: Generalization

Responding to similar stimuli in the same way (i.e. CS=7 so you flinch to other numbers)

Classical Conditioning: Discrimination

Learning to respond only to one specific stimulus (i.e. dog only views bell=food, not any other noise).

Classical Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden return of a previously extinct response (occurs after extinction, usually weaker).

Classical Conditioning: Extinction

The CR fading away when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Classical Conditioning: Taste Aversion

Learning to avoid a food after getting sick from it.

Classical Conditioning: One-Trial Conditioning

Learning something after just ONE experience.

Classical Conditioning: Higher Order/Second Order Conditioning

When other things get in the environment get associated (i.e. bell+food=salivating, room light+bell=salivating).

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behavior is shaped by consequences (developed B.F. Skinner).

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement

Increases behavior/makes it likely to reoccur.

Operant Conditioning: Punishment

Decreases behavior/makes it less likely to occur.

Operant Conditioning: Law of Effect

Any behavior that is reinforced is likely to reoccur.

Operant Conditioning: Primary Reinforcer

Things that are naturally rewarding without having to learn them.

Operant Conditioning: Secondary Reinforcer

Things that become rewarding after being linked to something else (i.e. good grades = money).

Operant Conditioning: Token Economies

Any system that uses secondary reinforcers to modify behavior (i.e. 10 stickers = a prize).

Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement

When stimulus is presented; responses may increase or decrease.

Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement

When the stimulus is removed in order to increase behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Rules for when behavior gets reinforced, different schedules = different behavior patterns.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Ratio

Behavior based on a number of responses (i.e. do it 5 times = a reward).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Interval

Behavior based on time passed (i.e. do it = reward after 10 minutes).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed

When it is predictable, always the same (i.e. every 3rd click).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable

When it is unpredictable, changes often (i.e. ABOUT every 2-3 times).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio

Reward after a SET number of responses (i.e. sell 5 shirts = a $50 bonus).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Ratio

A reward after an unpredictable number of responses (i.e. gambling = money).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed Interval

A reward after a set amount of time (i.e. every Sunday = allowance).

Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable Interval

A reward after varying amount of time (i.e. checking emails for college acceptances).

Observational Learning

Learning by others and imitating their actions, even without direct rewards or punishments (Coined by Albert Bandura).

Observational Learning: Modeling

The act of demonstrating a behavior that can be imitated by others.

Observational Learning: Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when you perform an action AND observe someone else doing it.

Observational Learning: Reflexively Copying Actions

Automatically mimicking what you see, often without thinking.

Observational Learning: Nervous System Reactions

Watching someone’s actions can trigger physiological responses in your body.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Achievement Motivation

An individual’s internal drive to excel, master skills, and achieve specific, challenging goals (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation).

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective, not for a reward.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior due to promises rewards or threats of punishment.

Criticisms of Operant Conditioning: Over Justification Effect

Desired behavior or once enjoyable behavior is no longer enjoyable; reward diminishes desire.

Cognitive Maps

A mental representation humans use to understand, navigate, and structure their environments (i.e. learning the layout of your school).

Latent Learning

The process of acquiring new information/skill without immediate reinforcement or conscious effort (hidden learning).

Biological Preparedness

The concept that organisms are evolutionarily predisposed to learn some associations more readily than others.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency to abandon learned/conditioned behaviors in favor of natural, instinctual behaviors.

Encoding

One of the steps of memory where you get info into your system/brain.

Storage

One of the steps to memory where you PUT info somewhere.

Retrieval

One of the steps of memory where you bring info out of storage into consciousness.

Sensory Input

Involves the 5 senses, when raw information is entering your brain following external events; encoding.

Sensory Memory

The first stage of memory that holds the sensory inputs/raw information from your environments. It’s duration (how long the info stays in that system) is short and is often gone if you aren’t paying atttention.

Sensory Memory: Iconic Memory

A type of sensory memory for sight; holds a brief image (VERY short duration).

Sensory Memory: Echoic Memory

A type of sensory memory for sound; holds what you just hear (short duration but longer than iconic).

Inattentional Blindness

Not noticing something due to a lack of focus or attention on it.

Change Blindness

You dont notice a change in something.

Short-Term Memory

A temporary holding area for information. It’s duration (how long the info stays in that system) Is 15-30 seconds but can be prolonged with rehearsal (practice).

Recall

Assessments asking you to provide what you know; often yielding the worst results.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating the information, which keeps it in your short-term memory storage.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting meaning or significance to information, where it will then be moved to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

The brains almost permanent storage system that retains information, skills, and experiences. It’s duration (how long the info stays in that system) Is potentially forever, and it’s capacity is practically unlimited.

Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative)

Involving the hippocampus, when memory is stored/retrieves; involving facts and events.

Long-Term Memory: Implicit(Procedural)

Involving the cerebellum involving well-learned physical conditions; skills.

Hippocampus

The part of your brain that forms new memories.

Cerebellum

The part of your brain that stores procedural/implicit memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

When the hippocampus is destroyed and prevents the formation of new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

When you are unable to remember old memories.

Retrospective Memory

Remembering things from the past.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future.

Recognition

Assessing your knowledge using multiple-choice options; yields better results.

Retrieval Failure

When the info is there in your brain, but you are unable to access it.

Proactive Interference

When old info messes up new info.

Retroactive Interference

When new info messes up old.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Developed by Hermann Ebbinghaus which states that we forget information fast after learning but it levels off over time (this can be slowed down by elaborate rehearsal).

Serial Position Effect

The effect that states we tend to remember things that happened toward the beginning (Primacy Effect) and things that happened toward the end (Recency Effect), forgetting most of the things that happened in between.

Misinformation Effect

When false info changes your memory.

Source Amnesia

When you remember info but forget where it came from/the context of it.

Memory Consolidation

The process of stabilizing a memory after it’s first learned. The hippocampus is used to temporarily hold new memories effort it is transferred to Long-Term memory.

Full Stages Of Memory

External Events > Sensory Inputs > Sensory Memory (Inattentional or Change Blindness) > Short-Term Memory > Encoding (Elaborative Rehearsal) > Long-Term Memory > Retrieval or Retrieval Failure.