U.S. Government: Congress, Presidency, and Judiciary (Chapters 11 – 13)

Vocabulary flashcards that review key terms, concepts, court cases, and political processes discussed in the lecture notes for Chapters 11 through 13 on Congress, the Presidency, and the Judiciary.

Oversight

Congress’s power to review and monitor actions of other governmental bodies, especially the executive branch.

Solicitor General

the lawyer who represents the federal government before the Supreme Court. 

Appellate Jurisdiction

the power of a court to review and change decisions made by lower courts. 

Marbury v. Madison

the Supreme Court case that established judicial review. 

Executive Agreement

international agreements made by the president that don’t need Senate approval. 

Bicameralism

A two-house legislature; in the United States this refers to Congress’s House of Representatives and Senate.

Standing Committee

a permanent committee in Congress that reviews and shapes proposed laws. 

Great Compromise

Agreement at the Constitutional Convention creating a bicameral Congress with equal state representation in the Senate and population-based representation in the House.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

Meeting in Philadelphia originally meant to revise the Articles of Confederation that produced the U.S. Constitution.

Virginia Plan

Constitutional proposal calling for representation in Congress to be based on state population.

New Jersey Plan

Constitutional proposal calling for equal representation for all states in Congress regardless of size.

Article I (Constitution)

Section of the Constitution that establishes the legislative branch and enumerates its powers.

Senator Qualifications

Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for 9 years, and reside in the represented state.

House Member Qualifications

Must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for 7 years, and reside in the represented state.

Apportionment

Allocation of House seats among states based on population after each census.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries to reflect population changes.

17th Amendment

Constitutional amendment establishing direct election of U.S. senators by voters.

Equal Proportions Method

Mathematical formula used to distribute House seats among the states.

Enumerated Power

A power specifically listed in the Constitution as belonging to Congress.

Implied Power

A power not expressly stated but considered necessary to carry out enumerated powers.

Inherent Power

Authority the government possesses simply because it is a sovereign entity.

Majority-Minority District

A congressional district in which a racial or ethnic minority constitutes a majority of the population.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two elected terms in office.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review.

War Powers Resolution

1973 law limiting the president’s ability to deploy troops without congressional authorization.

Commerce Clause

Constitutional provision giving Congress power to regulate interstate and international trade.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court ruling allowing corporations and unions to spend unlimited funds on independent political advocacy.

Super PAC

Independent political committee that can raise and spend unlimited money to support candidates but cannot coordinate with them.

PAC (Political Action Committee)

Organization that raises limited funds to donate directly to political candidates.

Constituent Casework

Assistance that members of Congress provide to constituents in dealing with federal agencies.

Surge-and-Decline Theory

Idea that voter turnout surges in presidential elections and declines in midterms, affecting party fortunes.

Delegate Model of Representation

Concept that representatives should vote according to the wishes of their constituents.

Trustee Model of Representation

Concept that representatives use their own judgment to make legislative decisions.

Politico Model of Representation

Approach in which legislators act as delegates or trustees depending on the issue.

Descriptive Representation

When elected officials mirror the demographic characteristics of their constituents.

Pork-Barrel Politics

Securing federal funds for local projects to please constituents.

Collective Representation

Idea that Congress as a whole represents the interests of the nation.

Congressional Approval Rating

Public measure of satisfaction with Congress’s performance.

Symbolic Vote

A vote cast mainly to signal a position without expectation that the measure will pass.

Earmark

Provision in legislation that directs funds to specific local projects.

National Deficit

Annual difference when federal spending exceeds revenue.

Speaker of the House

Presiding officer of the House and second in line to the presidency.

Select Committee

Temporary congressional committee formed for a specific purpose.

Minority Leader

Head of the party with fewer seats in a legislative chamber.

Majority Leader

Head of the party with more seats in a legislative chamber.

Whip

Party official responsible for counting votes and enforcing party discipline.

President Pro Tempore

Senior senator who presides over the Senate in the Vice President’s absence.

Standing Committee

Permanent congressional committee that handles legislation in specific policy areas.

Speaker Pro Tempore

Member who temporarily presides over the House in the Speaker’s absence.

Joint Committee

Committee composed of members of both the House and Senate for specialized tasks.

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of a bill.

Special Committee

Another term for a select committee created for a particular purpose.

Pro Forma Session

Brief congressional meeting held to satisfy constitutional requirements without conducting business.

Senate Parliamentarian

Non-partisan official who advises the Senate on rules and procedures.

Classic Legislative Process

Traditional sequence a bill follows—committee review, debate, and votes in each chamber—before becoming law.

Markup

Committee session where members edit and revise bill language.

Hearing Stage

Phase when committees collect testimony and information on proposed legislation.

Cloture

Senate procedure requiring 60 votes to end debate and proceed to a vote.

Filibuster

Prolonged Senate speech or debate meant to delay or block legislation.

Omnibus Bill

Large measure that combines many smaller bills into a single package.

Single Executive

Concept that executive power is vested in one individual—the president.

Cabinet

Group of presidential advisers, typically the heads of executive departments.

Presidential War Powers

Authority of the president to direct the military and respond to threats without a formal war declaration.

Executive Privilege

President’s right to withhold certain communications from Congress and the courts.

Executive Agreement

International agreement made by the president that does not require Senate approval.

Electoral College

Body of electors from each state that formally elects the president and vice-president.

Impeachment

House process of charging a federal official with misconduct, leading to a Senate trial.

Job of the President

Duties include enforcing laws, commanding the military, conducting foreign policy, and leading the executive branch.

Neutrality Proclamation

1793 declaration by President Washington that the U.S. would remain neutral in European conflicts.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 policy warning European powers against further colonization in the Western Hemisphere.

Bureaucratic Entity

Organization within the executive branch that implements and enforces laws.

King Caucus

Early 19th-century system in which party members in Congress selected presidential nominees.

Political Party System

Pattern of competition and interaction among political parties in the U.S.

Caucus System

Local gatherings of party members to choose delegates for presidential nominating conventions.

Outsider Phenomenon

Trend of candidates with little political experience gaining support by challenging the establishment.

Super Tuesday

Day during presidential primaries when many states hold elections simultaneously.

Pro-Electoral College Argument

View that the system protects small-state influence and provides clear outcomes.

Anti-Electoral College Argument

View that the system can ignore the popular vote and exaggerate swing-state power.

Cabinet Nominations

President’s selections for department heads, subject to Senate confirmation.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Executive office that prepares the federal budget and oversees agency performance.

Malign Neglect

Intentional inaction by officials to avoid addressing a problem.

Ethnicity-Gender-Geography Nomination Thesis

Idea that presidents choose nominees to balance demographic and regional representation.

Transition Team

Group that assists an incoming president in preparing to govern.

Inner Cabinet

Core group of influential department heads (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury, Justice).

Outer Cabinet

Cabinet members leading departments considered less central to daily presidential decision-making.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Collection of agencies that support the president’s policy and administrative goals.

Nuclear Option

Senate procedure allowing a simple majority to end debate on nominations, bypassing the 60-vote cloture rule.

Honeymoon Period

Early phase of a presidency when public and congressional support is highest.

Patronage

Practice of awarding government jobs or favors to political supporters.

Bully Pulpit

President’s platform to shape public opinion and promote policy.

Going Public

Strategy in which a president appeals directly to the public to influence Congress.

Signing Statement

Commentary a president issues when signing a bill, indicating how the law should be interpreted or enforced.

Power to Pardon

President’s constitutional authority to forgive crimes and eliminate punishments.

Line-Item Veto

Power to reject specific provisions of a bill without vetoing the entire measure (not available to U.S. presidents).

Executive Memorandum

Less formal presidential directive guiding agency actions.

Executive Order

Presidential directive with the force of law that does not require congressional approval.

Sustained Executive Order

Executive order that remains in force despite challenges or administration changes.

Solicitor General

Attorney who represents the federal government before the Supreme Court.

Patronage Politics

Use of government appointments or favors to reward political allies.

Hidden Hand Presidency

Presidential style characterized by behind-the-scenes leadership rather than public display.