A&P 1 test review

histology

The microscopic study of tissues

tissue

assembled group of similar cells that performs a specialized function

organ

structure consisting of two or more tissues with a specialized function

organ system

group of organs coordinated to carry on a specialized function

anatomy

branch of science dealing with the form and organization of body parts. Greek for “a cutting up”

physiology

the study of body functions. Greek for “relationship to nature”

superior

means a part is above another part

inferior

means a part is below another part

anterior

means toward the front

posterior

means toward the back

medial

refers to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves. A part is medial if it’s closer to midline than another part. ex- the nose is medial to the eyes

lateral

means toward the side, away from midline, ex- the ears are lateral to the eyes

bilateral

refers to paired structures, one on each side of midline. ex- the lungs are bilateral

ipsilateral

refers to structures on the same side. ex- the right lung and the right kidney are ipsilateral

contralateral

refers to structures on the opposite side. ex- a pt. with a fractured right leg would have to bear weight on the contralateral-in this case, left-lower limb

proximal

describes a part closer to a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part. ex- the elbow is proximal to the wrist

distal

is the opposite of proximal. it means a particular body part is farther from a point of attachment to the trunk. ex- the fingers are distal to the wrist

superficial

means near the surface. ex- the epidermis is the superficial layer of the skin

deep

describes more internal parts. ex- the dermis is the deep layer of the skin

sagittal

refers to a lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left portions

midsagittal

a sagittal section passes along the midline and divides into equal parts

parasagittal

a sagittal section later to midline

transverse

horizontal, refers to a cut that divides the body into superior and inferior portions

frontal

coronal, refers to a section that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

epigastric region

the upper middle portion. organs- esophagus, stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, right and left kidney, right and left ureters, right and left suprarenal glands, small intestine, transverse colon

right hypochondriac region

right side of the epigastric region. organs- liver, gallbladder, small intestine, ascending colon, transverse colon, right kidney

left hypogastric region

left side of the epigastric region. organs- stomach, top of the left lobe of the liver, left kidney, spleen, tail of the pancreas, parts of the small intestine, transverse colon, descending colon

umbilical region

the central portion. organs- stomach, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon, medial extremities of right and left kidneys, right and left ureters, cisterna chyli

right lumbar region

right side of the umbilical region. organs- tip of the liver, gallbladder, small intestine, ascending colon, right kidney

left lumbar region

left side of the umbilical region. organs- portion of the small intestine, part of the descending colon, tip of the left kidney

pubic (hypogastric) region

the lower middle portion. organs- small intestine, sigmoid colon, rectum, urinary bladder, right and left ureters, uterus, right and left ovaries, fallopian tubes, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate

right inguinal (iliac) region

right side of the pubic region. organs- small intestine, appendix, cecum, ascending colon, right ovary, right fallopian tube

left inguinal (iliac) region

left side of the pubic region. organs- part of the small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ovary, left fallopian tube

integumentary system

pertaining to the skin and its accessory organs (hairs, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands). help regulate body temp, house a variety of sensory receptors, synthesize certain products

skeletal system

consists of bones, ligaments, and cartilages that bind together at the joints. provide a framework and protective shields for softer tissues, serve as attachments for muscles, and act together with muscles when body parts move. tissues within bones also produce blood cells and store inorganic salts

muscular system

by contracting and pulling their ends closer together, muscles provide the forces that move body parts. muscles also help maintain posture and are primary source of body heat

nervous system

consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. Nerve cells within these organs use impulses in combination with chemical signals to communicate with one another and with muscles and glands.

endocrine system

includes all glands that secrete hormones, a hormone alters the metabolism of its target cells. consists of pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus

cardiovascular system

includes the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins, and blood. The heart is a muscular pump that helps force blood through the blood vessels. blood carries gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

lymphatic system

closely associated with the cardiovascular system. composed of the lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen. the system transports some fluid from the spaces in tissues back to the bloodstream and carries certain fatty substances away from the digestive organs. lymphocytes defend body against infections by removing pathogens from tissue fluid

digestive system

receive foods and then break down food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed into the internal environment. includes mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine.

respiratory system

move air in and out of body and exchange gases between the blood and the air. Oxygen passes from air in the lungs into the blood, and carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the air in the lungs and then moves out of the body. includes nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, bronchi, and lungs

urinary system

consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Kidneys remove waste from blood and assist in maintaining the body’s water and electrolyte concentrations (product is urine).

reproductive system (male)

produces and maintain sperm cells, transfer sperm cells into female reproductive tract. includes scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis

reproductive system (female)

produce and maintain oocytes, receive sperm cells, support development of an embryo, and function in birth process.includes ovaries, uterine tubes,uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva

anatomical position

Body posture with the body erect, face forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward

subatomic particle

protons, neutrons, electrons that make up cell. 10th, non-living

atom

tiny particle that make up chemicals. 9th, non-living

molecule

particles consisting of atoms joined together. 8th, non-living

macromolecule

large particles consisting of molecules. 7th, non-living

organelle

functional part of a cell. 6th, non-living

cell

basic unit of structure and functions, 5th, living

tissue

layer or mass of cells with specific functions, 4th, living

organ

group of different tissues with a common function. 3rd, living

organ system

group of organs with common functions. 2nd, living

organism

composed of organ systems interacting. 1st, living

cranial cavity

space in the cranium containing the brain.

vertebral cavity

canal formed by hollow areas in the vertebrae that contains the spinal cord

thoracic cavity

space containing organs in the upper trunk.

abdominopelvic cavity

space between the diaphragm and the pelvic outlet that contains the abdominal and pelvic viscera. has peritoneal membranes

abdominal cavity

space between the diaphragm and the pelvic inlet that contains the abdominal viscera

pelvic cavity

hollow place within the ring formed by the sacrum and hip bones

homeostasis

the body’s ability to keep its internal conditions stable, such that its cells can survive. has homeostatic mechanisms such as receptors, control center, effectors.

positive feedback

process by which changes cause additional similar changes, producing unstable conditions changes. ex- the distorted sound that occurs during concerts or a speech if the volume on the amplifier is too high

negative feedback

a mechanism that restores the level of biochemical or other conditions in the internal environment conditions. ex- room is 20 C, outside temp is 30 C so ac starts or outside temp 14 C so furnace starts. keeps the room temp in balance by making up with the outside temp either increasing to decreasing

plasma membrane

extremely thin, flexible, somewhat elastic cell membrane. outermost limit of the cell that separates Intracellular fluid and Extracellular fluid outside a cell. it consists of a double bilipid layer (bilayer) of phospholipids. has lipids, proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrates

ribosomes

organelle composed of rna and protein that provides structural support and enzymatic activity for protein synthesis. are bound to the rer

endoplasmic reticulum

organelle composed of a network of connected membranous tubules and vesicles. provide transport system for molecules throughout the cell, interact with the cell membrane, nuclear envelope. Rough (has ribosomes) and smooth (lacks ribosomes)

vesicles

membranous, cytoplasmic sac that store or transport substances (vesicle trafficking) within a cell or between cells. vary in size and shape.

golgi apparatus

Organelle that prepares and modifies cellular products for secretion, is stack of 5-8 flattened membranous sacs (cisternae).

mitochondria

elongated, fluid-filled saces 2-5 um long, with a tendency to change shape and size. creates atp

lysomes

“garbage disposals” of the cell, their powerful enzymes break down proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

peroxisomes

resemble lysosomes, catalyze metabolic reactions.

interphase

very active period, cells grow and maintain its routine functions as well as its contributions to the internal environment. divided into phases based on the sequences of activities. DNA is replicated during S phase (S stands for synthesis) and is bracketed by two G phases, G1 and G2 (G stands for gap or growth)

prophase

chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles move to opposite sides of cytoplasm; nuclear envelope and nucleolus disperse; microtubules assemble and associate with centrioles and two sister chromatids making up each chromosome

metaphase

spindle fibers from the centrioles attach to the centromeres of the sister chromatids of each chromosome; chromosomes align midway between the centrioles

anapahse

centromeres separate, and sister chromatids move apart, with each chromatid now an individual chromosome; spindle fibers shorten and pull these new individual chromosomes toward the centrioles

telophase

chromosomes elongate and form chromatin threads; nuclear envelope forms around each mass of chromatin; nucleoli form; microtubules break down

diffusion

passive mechanism, random movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration toward one of lower concentration. can only occur if cell membrane is permeable to that substance and a concentration gradient exists (high and low concentration)

facilitated diffusion

passive mechanism, diffusion in which a protein channel or carrier molecule transports a substance across a cell membrane from a region of higher to a region of lower concentration

osmosis

passive mechanism, movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane (aquaporins or phospholipids) toward a greater concentration of impermeant solute.

filtration

passive mechanism, random movement of molecules through a membrane as a result of hydrostatic pressure.

active transport

active mechanism, process requires energy (atp) and a carrier molecule to move a substance across a cell membrane against concentration gradient

endocytosis

active mechanism, molecules or other particles that are too large to enter a cell by diffusion or active transport are conveyed in a vesicle that forms from a portion of the cell membrane. has 3 forms, pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis

phagocytosis

active mechanism, process by which a cell engulfs solids from its surroundings

pinocytosis

active mechanism, process by which cell engulfs droplets of fluid from its surroundings

receptor-mediated endocytosis

active mechanism, selective cellular uptake of molecules that bind to a specific receptor type

exocytosis

active mechanism, transport of substances out of a cell in a membrane-bounded vesicle, kinda opposite of endocytosis

transcytosis

active mechanism, combination of receptor-mediated endocytosis and exocytosis that moves particles through a cell layer

isotonic

solution with the same osmotic pressure as the solution to which it is compared. blood cell in isotonic solution, water will move in and out of cell at the same rate, shape will remain normal

hypertonic

solution with a greater osmotic pressure than the solution to which it is compared. blood cell in hypertonic solution, water moves by osmosis out of cell resulting in shrinking of blood cell

hypotonic

solution with a lower osmotic pressure than the solution to which it is compared. blood cell in hypotonic solution, water enters the cell by osmosis causing the cell to swell or even burst

skeletal muscle tissue

voluntary, striated and its cylindrical cells are multinucleated.

cardiac muscle tissue

involuntary, striated, and its cells are cylindrical and branched, containing only 1 nucleus and are joined by intercalated discs.

smooth muscle tissue

involuntary, non-striated, ad its cells are spindle-shaped and contain only 1 nucleus

agonist

muscle that causes a particular movement

antagonist

muscle that opposes the agonist action

prime mover

muscle that provides most of a particular body movement; agonist

synergist

muscle that assists the action of an agonist

neuromuscular junction

synapse between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber.