ch 17 evolution of plant and fungal diversity

charophytes

plants and green algae

are evolved from a common ancestor

photosynthetic eukaryotes

has complex multicellular bodies

algae

surrounding water supports algae

whole algae performs photosynthesis

absorbs water, CO2 and minerals from water

moss

stomata only on sporophyte

primitive roots anchor plants

no lignin

no vascular tissue

fertilization requires moisture

Fern

stomata

roots anchor plants, absorbs water

lignified cell walls 

vascular tissue

fertilization requires moisture

pine trees

stomata

root anchors plants, absorbs water

lignified cell walls

vascular tissue

fertilization does not require moisture

leaves

carry out photosynthesis

flowers

reproductive structures, contains spores and gamete

cuticle

covers leaves and stem , reduces water loss

stomata

in leaves

allows gas exchanges between plant and atmosphere

lignin

hardens cell wall of some plant tissues to let them grow tall

stem

support plants

may perform photosynthesis

vascular tissues

in shoots and roots

transport water, minerals, and sugars

provide support

roots 

anchor plants

mycorrhizae (root-fungus association) helps absorb water and minerals from the soil

order of events of plant kingdom

1. origin of land plants(non vascular)

2. origin of vascular plants

3. origin of seed plants

land plants(non vascular)

unable to support large vertical growth

gametophyte -dominant life cycle

byophytes-moss,liverworts,hornworts

seedless vascular plants

sporophyte-dominant life cycle

lignin-development of strong extensive vascular networks capable of supporting vertical growth

ferns, horsetails

2 types of seedless vascular plants

1.lycophytes-club mosses

2.monilophytes-ferns

seed plants

sperm transporting pollen grains and protects embryos in seeds

gymnosperms and angiosperms

gymnosperms

like pines-produce seeds in cones ( non-protective)

angiosperms

seed are developed within protective ovaries

examples of gymnosperms

Ginkgo

Cycad

Ephedra(mormon tea)

conifer

gametophyte

haploid generation of a plant producing gametes

sporophyte

diploid generation produces spores

moss life cycle

gametophyte-dominant stage

1.main, leafy moss plant you usually see

has male organ-sperm and female organ-egg

2.sperm reaches egg using water →fertilization occurs forming a zygote(2n)

3.Zygote grows into a sporophyte

-grows and depends on the gametophyte for nutrients

-consist of a stalk(seta) and a capsule(Sporangia) at the top

-inside sporangium, meiosis occurs, producing spores

4.spores are releases into environment and lands on suitable ground and grows into new gametophyte

fern life cycle

sporophyte-dominant stage(2n)

1.sporophyte stage-undersides of leaves is producing sporangia 

meiosis occurs in sporangia, producing haploid spores(n)

2.spores are released into the environment  when land is moist, suitable conditions, they germinate into gametophyte

3.Gametophyte is a tiny, green area, heart shaped structure. has no vascular tissue and has sperm and egg parts

4.fertilization occurs creating zygote(2n)

5.zygote forms into a new sporophyte

bryophytes

moss, hornworts, liverworts

represent first lineage to transition on land

lack vascular system

dominant phase: Gametophyte(n)

sperm moves through water

carboniferous period

two clades of seedless plant formed forest. when plant died→formed deposits that made coal

glaciers formed and the climate turned drier

fossil fuels

coal, oil, gas 

pressure and heat converted into coal 

oil and natural gas formed from marine organisms

advantage of the late carboniferous period

wind dispersed pollen and protective seeds gave seed plants a competitive advantage

pollination

transfer of pollen to the ovule

pollen grain

male gametophyte covered by pollen wall, produced by microspore

ovule

structure that contains the megasporangium and megaspore, develops into seed after fertilization

seed plant life cycle

1.pollen grain reaches the ovule it germinates forming a pollen tube that digests through the megasporangium

2.megasporopcyte undergoes meiosis, produces 4 haploid cells, one which will become the megaspore

3.megaspore develops into female gametophyte containing multiple eggs

4.fertilization occurs when the sperm and egg unite, ovule becomes the seed

sepal

serve as protection for the flower bud and support for the petals

petals

modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of the flower, serve to attract pollinators

stamen

pollen producing part of the flower

includes filament and anther

filament

stalk portion of the stamen

anther

structure in which microsporangia forms microspores

carpel

megaspores and female gametophyte

contains stigma, style, ovary

stigma

tip of the carpel that receives the pollen

style

leads from the stigma to the ovary

ovary

contains the ovules

fruit

formed from ovary after fertilization

xylem

transport tissue, like wood, that transport water and minerals

phloem

transport tissue that transports sugar, amino acids, and other nutrients

flower life cycle

1. Seed Germination

• The life cycle begins with a seed, which contains an embryo (young plant) and stored food.

• When conditions are right (water, oxygen, and warmth), the seed germinates.

• The embryo grows into a seedling (young sporophyte).

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🌿 2. Mature Sporophyte Growth

• The seedling grows into a mature plant (sporophyte), which has roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.

• The sporophyte is diploid (2n) — it has two sets of chromosomes.

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🌸 3. Flower Formation (Reproductive Structures)

• The mature plant produces flowers, which contain the reproductive organs:

  • Stamens → the male part (produces pollen grains).

  • Carpels (pistils) → the female part (contains ovules inside the ovary).

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🌾 4. Meiosis and Gametophyte Formation

• Inside the anthers, meiosis occurs, producing haploid (n) pollen grains — the male gametophytes.

• Inside the ovules, meiosis also occurs, producing haploid cells — one becomes the female gametophyte (embryo sac) containing the egg cell.

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🌬 5. Pollination

• Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther (male) to the stigma (female).

• This can happen through wind, insects, water, or animals.

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🌾 6. Fertilization

• A pollen grain lands on the stigma and grows a pollen tube down the style to the ovule.

• The sperm cells travel through the tube:

  • One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote (2n).

  • The other sperm joins with two other nuclei in the embryo sac to form endosperm (3n) — this nourishes the embryo.

  • This process is called double fertilization, unique to flowering plants.

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🌰 7. Seed and Fruit Development

• After fertilization:

  • The zygote develops into an embryo.

  • The ovule becomes a seed.

  • The ovary becomes a fruit, which protects the seed and helps with seed dispersal.

fruits

ripened ovaries of flowers

is and adaptation to help disperse seeds

seed dispersal mechanism

wind

hitching ride on animals

fleshy, edible deposits that attract animals, become a natural fertilizer at a distance from the parent ( animal poop out seed far away from parent plant)

flowers attract pollinators by

color

scent

fungi

heterotrophic eukaryotes that acquire their nutrients by absorption

lichen

symbiotic association of fungus and algae(cyanobacteria) that are held together in a mass of hyphae

fungus receives food from photosynthetic partner 

fungi mycelium helps algae/cyanobacterium absorb nutrients and retain water and minerals

Hypha

long filament structure of a fungal bodyone or more cells surrounded by a cell wall

mycelium

interwoven mass of hyphae

mycorrhizae

myco-fungi, rhizae- roots symbiotic association of fungus and the roots of vascular plants

absorbs phosphorous and other minerals from the soil and make available to plant

heterokaryotic stage

cell containing two or more nuclei that are genetically different, n+n

fungi life cycle

1. Spore Formation

• The life cycle starts with spores.

• Spores are tiny reproductive cells that can grow into a new fungus.

• They are usually haploid (n), meaning they have one set of chromosomes.

• Spores are made by structures like sporangia, gills, or fruiting bodies (mushrooms).

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💨 2. Spore Germination

• When spores land in a moist, nutrient-rich environment, they germinate.

• Each spore grows into a hypha — a thin, thread-like structure.

• Many hyphae together form a network called mycelium.

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🌿 3. Mycelium Growth

• The mycelium grows underground or within its food source (like soil, wood, or decaying matter).

• It absorbs nutrients by breaking down organic material — fungi are decomposers.

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❤ 4. Sexual Reproduction (when conditions are right)

• When two compatible hyphae meet, they may fuse in a process called plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm).

• This creates a cell with two nuclei (n + n) — called a dikaryotic cell.

• The mycelium now has cells with two separate nuclei from different parents.

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💥 5. Karyogamy (nuclei fusion)

• Later, the two nuclei in a cell fuse together — this is called karyogamy.

• This forms a diploid (2n) nucleus.

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✂ 6. Meiosis

• The diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis, producing new haploid spores (n).

• These spores are released from the fruiting body (like a mushroom cap) into the environment

imperfect fungi

us only asexual reproduction for spore production

include mold and yeast

mold

rapidly growing fungus that produces asexually by producing spores, often at the tips of specialized hyphae

ex)black bread mold

yeast

any single celled fungus

ascomycetes

sac fungi

basidiomycetes

club fungi(Ascomycota)

muscroom’s

puffball

shelf fungi

benefits of fungi

supply nutrients to plants through symbiotic mycorrhizae

essential decomposers and recycle nutrients that are essential for plant growth

digest petroleum products to clean up oil spills and other chemical messes

fungal diseases in humans

Ringworm appears as circular red areas on the skin and scalp

athlete's foot-ringworm fungus

vaginal yeast infection