Sociology - Work, poverty and welfare

Townsend (1979)

Individuals can be considered to be in poverty when they ==lack the resources== to obtain types of diets, participate in the activities and have the living conditions which ave encouraged and ==approved in society==. May lead to exclusion from ordinary living patterns, customs or activities. Created a ==deprivation index== - a list of goods and services that H people could not afford were considered to be poor

Poverty line

people living on or below 60% of the median income

Absolute poverty

A person living in absolute poverty ==lacks the minimum necessary for survival==- resorting to food banks and not being able to pay water bills

Social metrics commission 2017/18 estimated

14\.8 million people are living in absolute poverty

Problems in defining absolute poverty

==Difficulty in identifying basic needs==- hard to objectively decide basic needs. Rowntree's minimum budget was based on a list of nutritional and other requirements and based on the views off those who made the list.

==Ignores the reality of people's lives== - ill health

==Ignores impact of cultural expectations== - socialising, attending events, judgement for clothes and technology

Relative Poverty Strengths

\-Recognises that ==poverty is a social construct==- it is defined by what the normal standard of living is in that society

\-Recognises that the ==definition of poverty changes over time== in the same society

\-Links poverty to ==wider issues of social exclusion==

Relative poverty weaknesses

\-==Not an indicator of poverty more social inequality== - relative poverty exists at every class level

\-Based on the ==values of experts not members of the public==

\-Measure of absolute poverty is much ==more scientific== and easy to measure

Relative poverty

Relative poverty is when households receive 50% less than average household incomes. circumstances in which people ==cannot afford actively to participate in society== and benefit from the activities and experiences that most people take for granted.

Social exclusion

==Townsend== developed his ideas and moved away from the static concept of poverty and used social exclusion as the measure of poverty. This allowed poverty to be understood through interconnecting disadvantages such as bad health. This is closely linked to social exclusion this suggests there is more to poverty than just low income/wealth. ==Multiple factors can lead to poverty.==

Minimum standard of living

The centre of research social policy and the JRF (Joseph Rowntree Foundation) have developed the ==minimum income standard== for defining relative poverty in the UK.

Oscar Lewis (1961)

first person to study cultural attitudes of the poor in his research in Mexico and Puerto Rico. Suggests the ==poor have their own culture of poverty== with distinct norms and values.

* ==won’t take opportunities== to change when they arise
* sense of ==fatalism==
* reluctant to work
* don’t plan for the future

==Children== that grow up in this culture are ==socialised== to it

New Right: dependency culture

See poor as underserving

Marsland (1989)

Poverty persists because of ==generosity of the welfare state==

* ==handouts== from a nanny state created dependency culture (people would rather live on benefits than work)
* universal welfare benefits regardless of income (child benefits being available to all ==stops money being invested into economy)== should be stopped given only to those that can’t work

Job seekers allowance

Those ==actively seeking work== can continue receiving benefits. Cuts to amount people receive, 2020 ==universal credit roll out== - people receive ==one payment per month== from which have to pay rent and council tax

Charles Murray

Was an ==emerging underclass== in 1980s Britain who were responsible for ==rising crime rates and unemployment.== Happy to claim benefits and live in ==‘deviant’ family structures== - single parenting for ==PERVERSE INCENTIVES==. Believed there was a dependency culture in the UK and that children brought up in SPFs were more likely to become criminal due to a ==lack of primary socialisation.==

Cultural explanation of poverty

==Focuses no behaviour and attitudes of poor.== Victim blaming, dependency culture, shared values and reliant on state

Idea that welfare benefits lead to dependency culture - for

* People get paid for not working and perverse incentives may lead them to carry on
* New Right: ==easier to claim benefits than to find work==

Idea that welfare benefits lead to dependency culture - against

* People on welfare benefits are in need of it and they’re ==not doing it to drain the state because they have no other choice==
* State and RC have vast ==wealth- should be distributed==

Criticisms of Murray

* ==Without benefits there’d be more crime due to rise in absolute poverty== - crime necessary to survive
* Scapegoating the poor for their situation is victim blaming and ignorant - says poor are deserving of situation, ignores individual factors and he doesn’t provide solutions to fix poverty
* ==Genetic modification of the poor is unethical== as it isn’t a genetic fault. No biological link. Placed into situation due to factors out of your control, society constructs poverty.

Myths of the welfare state

* ==generations of workshy familie==s - ==only 0.3% of households with 2 or more generations where neither have worked==
* ==Benefits too generous== - £77 per week
* ==Benefit bill is too high== because of benefit cheats - normal amount
* ==Most claimants are sitting at home on benefits for years==
* Most ==welfare spending goes on unemployed==
* We are spending vast amounts on large families with too many children

Criticisms of cultural explanations

* No clear evidence that children inherit their parent’s behaviour - ==Rutter and Madge (1976) found at least half born into poverty don’t repeat the behaviour.== Too deterministic as it ignores free will and is victim blaming. ==Shildrick (2012) argues no evidence of dependency culture, only 0.5% of households had culture of worklessness==
* Blames victims rather than causes - fails to consider structural factors, marxists argue easier to blame poor than government
* Based on myths of the welfare state - Baumberg, Bell and Gaffney (2013) the new right view of underclass is based on constant pollution of misinformation from gov. and media

Material explanations of poverty

* Lack of material support - inadequate welfare state and lack of funding for those in poverty
* Economic and social positions of groups with low pay, the rich, elderly and unemployed influence behaviour of poor
* Hopelessness of future leads to present time orientation attitude
* Attitudes and values are response to being poor not cause of poverty
* Coates and Silburn (1970) - Poor are trapped due to circumstance (cycle of deprivation)

The poor pay more

Immediately disadvantaged because cost of living is higher for those in poverety

* Poor quality homes - expensive to heat and maintain
* Home and care insurance is high - higher crime rates in poor areas
* Cheap clothing which doesn’t last
* Pay more for food as can only afford to buy in small quantities
* May shop at local corner shop - more expensive but can’t get to supermarket (no car)
* Pay more for credit as they have to go to loan sharks
* Suffer more ill health - pay non prescription medicine - painkillers

Social democratic view of underclass

Consists of people right at the bottom of the social hierarchy, their poverty means they’re excluded from society. Field (1989) - group consists of elderly, lone parents, long term unemployed, disabled, low paid and long term sick. Forced to rely on inadequate state benefits - too low for acceptable standard of living. Migrant workers and asylum seekers work illegally in low paid jobs - cannot claim benefits so stuck in poverty traps.

Marxist view of underclass

Miliband (1974) critical that the poor is an underclass. Seen not as separate but the most disadvantaged of working class. All working class could join the group if became sick, unemployed or disabled. To solve - destroy capitalist system.

Structural explanations of poverty

Arises from structure of inequality in capitalist society. Wealth is unequally distributed

Marxism: Poor are poor because they are exploited by the rich

Weberian: they lack skills and power

Functionalism: They serve a purpose in maintaining society

Structural approaches suggest the poor lack ability to change their position.

Wealth

Property in the form of assets, what a person can sell for cash. Wealth and assets survey in 2015 measured wealth in each UK household

Marketable wealth: assets that could be bought and sold

Non marketable wealth: Pensions or long term servings plans

Productive property: wealth which provides unearned income - homes that are rented

Consumption property: wealth which you can have in the consumer goods and you can own

Income

The money people get from work earned income, benefits or if own property and rent it out

Disposable income: left over after paying tax

Discretionary income: what is left after tax, bills, food and travel costs

Functionalist view on wealth and income

Always going to be rich and poor in society, inequality is needed for it to function. Meritocracy - succeed on own hard work

Marxist view on wealth and income

Everyone should be equal and that there should be an equal distribution of wealth. Proletariat are unfairly disadvantaged bu the bourgeoisie - exploitations. Invented wealth - meritocracy is a myth

Attempts to redistribute wealth

Inheritance tax, Capital gains tax, Income tax and social welfare benefits

Inheritance tax

tax payable on money inherited when a relative dies

Capital gains tax

Intended to reduce profits from dealing property and shares is payable when these are sold

Income tax

Payable on both earned and unearned income and it increases as your wages increase

Social welfare benefits

these are from the state and are a way of using taxes from the wealthy to support the poorest in society.

Attempts to redistribute wealth haven’t worked

Rising cost of living, wages and benefits don’t meet this. Changes in gov., tax goes back to gov. and isn’t used to redistribute wealth to poor, greed of upper class (marxism), stigma - some may not claim benefits they’re entitled to

Distribution and extent of poverty in UK

14\.6 million living in poverty - socio economic factors shape experience

* 33.6% of all children live in poverty
* 50% of those in poverty on low incomes or without jobs
* 16% of pensioners in poverty
* 46% of lone parents in poverty
* Ethnic background can increase likelihood of poverty - 65% of Bangledeshis, 45% of Black African, 25% of Indians
* Disabled - 28% of those in poverty

Post modernism - focuses on individual experiences, Post structural feminism - double disadvantage (racism and sexism)

Ethnicity and poverty - Theories

Marxism: structural theory, racism and lower class exploitation

Functionalism: poverty helps to motivate and discipline society, all roles need filling - functionally important

New Right (Murray): cultural explanations - norms and values of different family types (links to Modood)

Kenway and Palmer: almost 50% of children from EMG are in poverty, Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Chinese families are more likely to be affected

Ethnicity and poverty - Reasons

Low pay: Purdah - women kept separately from men so men work

Unemployment: higher amongst Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, black Africans and black Caribbeans

Discrimination in employment: Wood - racism in recruitment study

Underachievement in education: Ball - ethnocentric curriculum

Family types: Modood - differences in values, family types (SPF)

Age and poverty - Theories

Marxism: Structural factors lead to elderly in poverty, structured this way for a reason

Functionalism: Elderly being in poverty is good for society as they’ve served their function, society needs poverty to function correctly

New Right (Murray): Children in poverty due to poor parenting and lack of socialisation in underclass by generous nanny state. Nanny state means people having children to get council house and benefits, will create cycle children will think it’s right - Perverse incentives.

Age and poverty - Reasons

Child poverty can cause wider social problems e.g., crime and bullying due to the fact that they can't afford things

Older people are less likely to live in poverty, children are more likely to live in a low income household - 33.6% of children in the UK live in poverty.

Hirsch- causes material and social hardships which affects education and has lasting effects on physical and emotional health., greater risk of poverty as adults

Factors that lead to a greater risk of child poverty: lone parenthood, lack of work or low paid parents, disability of parents, lack of benefits, lack of support - cost of childcare

Disability and poverty - Theories

Marxism: structural factors lead to those with disabilities being in poverty

Functionalism: the disabled being in poverty is good because it creates jobs in health and social care

New right (Murray): those on disability benefits could be working and not relying on the system

Palmer: 33% of disabled adults are living in poverty, 2/5 are single adults looking after kids. Due to a lack of day to day support they experience social exclusion

Disability and poverty - Reasons

Inadequate welfare benefits: not enough to keep people out of poverty especially with rising cost of living. Disability benefits haven't increased at the same rate as those for children and the elderly

Discrimination from employers: discrimination against those with disabilities although illegal often happens because cost of adaptations or appointment absences

Low pay: more likely to be in a low paid position which impacts future pensions especially if they need to retire early because of physical problems

Unemployment: those with disabilities are 4 times more likely to be unemployed even if they have similar qualifications

Inability to undertake paid employment: disabilities prohibit it they are welfare dependant

Gender and poverty - Theories

Marxism: structural factors lead to women in poverty or given low paid jobs, better for capitalism for women to be at home

Functionalism: women should be married they shouldn't work to raise the children as this is society's structure

New right (Murray): women are more likely to be lone percents because of perverse incentives-council houses

Gender and poverty - Reasons

Women ave no more likely than men to experience poverty (20% of both live in poverty)

\-Single female pensioners higher risk

\-Women of all ethnic backgrounds have lower average income - glass ceiling

\-Pakistani and Bangladeshi have poverty rates of 50%

Women more likely to take up part time work and be low paid

\-Miss out on work related welfare benefits

\-Responsible for childcare

\-Ferri and Smith - Dual burden

Majority of homeworkers who usually do jobs which fit around the children- body shop or scentsy consultancy which means they only get paid on what they sell so have no employment rights

More likely to be lone parents with the responsibility of children

More likely to sacrifice standard of living for themselves to provide- Middleton: mothers sacrifice no food for themselves to provide e.g. Clothes and holidays

Live longer than men so lack of pensions means more poverty in old age

Poverty - Functionalism

Everything in society has a purpose. Durkheim said institutions work together to keep society going it one fails, they all fail -organic analogy. Inequality in wealth is needed for society to function

Key theorist 1: Davis and Moore.- role allocation (Functionalism)

inequalities in wealth and income are needed to maintain society:

\-Some positions in society are more functionally important than others. These require specialist skills that not everyone in society has the ability to acquire.

\-Those who do have the ability to do these jobs must be motivated and encouraged to undertake lengthy training with the promise of high wages. There must be a system of unequal rewards to make sure the most able get highest positions.

A functionally important job e-g., doctor is a long process to be qualified but physically demanding and low paid footballers and influences don't necessarily have a difficult job but get paid very highly

Key theorist 2: Gans (Functionalism)

existence of poverty has important functions for the stability of society because:

\-Existence of poverty makes sure that the undesirable, dirty and dangerous jobs are done as people do these who have no choice

\-Poverty creates job occupations, such as social workers, debt advisors

\-The treat of poverty keeps people working even it for low rewards and reinforces values of a hard-honest days' work

\-Some sectors thrive on having a high number of people on low paid roles eg. Health service and clothing industry

Criticisms of functionalism - poverty

No way of deciding which jobs are more important - can change over time:

Some have inherited wealth - class system isn't enforced,

Some are not motivated by a financial reward of higher pay.

Poverty may not motivated people to work to avoid it - Murray and nanny state

Poverty (Weberian) Key theorist 3 - Weber

Weber believed that inequalities in wealth and income exist due to the different market situations of individuals - different skills a person has and how much its worth

Some have skills, talents and abilities that are in demand such as scientists or doctors. in our celeb-based society celebrities get higher rewards for their skills.

Poverty arises when a person is in a weak market situation- they may lack the skills needed to earn reward of high pay or have barriers which stop them acquiring those skills - sexism-gender pay gap, glass ceiling. Ageism and racism, dysfunctional family - weak support system

Weberian strengths - poverty

\-Recognises individual situations compared to functionalists

\-Recognises skills and qualifications - still relevant to society

\-Focuses on other factors than class (more useful than Marxism)

Weberian limitations - poverty

\-What you're born into - Marxist view

\-Outdated - post modernists

\-Murray would criticise as market situation is based on norms and values and attitudes, not skills/quals which gives underclass an excuse

Poverty - (Marxism)

Key theorist 4 - Miliband and Westergaard and Resler

Suggest that wealth and income inequality and the existence of poverty lies in the private ownership of the means of production

The concentration of ownership means that all of this is owned by a small number of upper class - this make them a lot of unearned income

Key Marxist arguments - poverty

\-Wealth and income is concentrated in the hands of the ruling class, this creates inequality

\-Poverty is inevitable in a capitalist society

\-The working class keep the inequality going by working for the ruling class through cheap labour

\-The existence of non-working poor keeps wages down as there are always new workers looking for low paid jobs

\-Poverty divides the working class into us and them and helps maintain false class consciousness

Divide and rule

divide working class up to rule over them

Criticisms of Marxism

It fails to consider individual differences - gender, age, people with disabilities, race/ethnic group and sexuality.

Post structural feminists would consider the double disadvantage of racism and sexism

Post modernists focus on the individual person

Welfare state

A welfare state is one that is concerned with implementing social policies guaranteeing the 'cradle to the grave' well being of the population. The welfare state in Britain mainly began with the Beveridge Report of 1942 which was based on 4 main assumptions:

Full employment, universal welfare, free healthcare and education, that women would be housewives and mothers

The Beveridge Report recommended that welfare services aimed to destroy the 5 giants

Want - greed, dissatisfaction, no money

Ignorance - homelessness, more exploitation, lack of education, crime rates increasing, discrimination

Disease - illness, lack of health, no NHS

Squalor - not living in good conditions, homelessness, council houses, leads to ignorance and want

Idleness - lack in financial needs, social deprivation, job seeking

Welfare state came into effect 5th July 1948 provided range of benefits and services paid for by taxation:

Benefits, Free NHS, Free compulsory educations, social services

Advantages of welfare state

\-Provides a safety net when private sectors fail e.g., given benefits by the government if a business fails or loans in construction/ care businesses

\-More likely to provide a wider range of services e.g., social services cover housing, family difficulties, extracurricular clubs, homelessness, support for young people, ill health and disabilities. A range of support and cradle to grave. Full care- holistic care for the whole person cradle to grave

\-Can easily be held to account for their failings e.g., underperforming schools will be judged by competitive standard, getting harder each year. Parents. Ofsted, general public - taxpayer held accountable

Welfare state disadvantages

\-It is often at the mercy of funding from the government which can be cut as we have seen in NHS and salary being ult. Police funds at money not spent wisely by government. More unemployment-less taxpayers. Universal credit decreasing

\-Too much demand can place the service under incredible pressure e.g., the NHS waiting lists and during COVID the lack of doctors/nurses for patients

Welfare Pluralism

Welfare pluralism: welfare provided by the public sector (state), private companies, voluntary organisations, charities, families and community groups

\-Less stress on the government-shared responsibility, functionalism-organic analogy - Durkheim, New right - shouldn't depend on government nanny state

\-Focuses on specific social groups- targeted support- post modernism, diversity, choice, pick and mix

Informal welfare provision

Welfare provided informally and for free by family and friends. 13.6 million carers during Covid but statistics could be invalid and inaccurate-large amount unaccounted for (dark figure)

The government benefits from carers because they don't have to spend money on taking care of people, less pressure on government and reduces dependency culture

It can emotionally effect young carers as their is no one to take care of them

2011 census showed women 73% more likely to be carers than men. This could be because of traditional gender stereotypes and the patriarchal society we live in- Beveridge report a and patriarchal assumption

The Beveridge report included the patriarchal assumption that women would primarily be house drives and mothers concerned with looking after the family. In this sense they would go to their working husbands for financial support. Much welfare provision today still rests on this assumption, despite the fact that most wo men now also work outside the home in paid employment. Dual burden-caring and working (Ferri and Smith), triple shift (Dunscombe and Marsden)

Voluntary sector

Voluntary organisations are non profit making organisations, often charities. They are staffed by volunteers and paid staff

Welfare pluralism advantages

\-High levels of expertise such as: mental health professionals food banks, specialist advice and information-jobseeking link to other charities-training and research to give specialist advice

\-Able to respond quickly in meeting peoples needs: 24/7 services, charities specialis in certain sectors- smaller target group, bases around the UK so is accessible

\-Specialise in areas such as mental health, child safety, homelessness, financial and emotional support and medical support

\-They can act as a pressure group, highlighting social inequalities such as racism, unequal pay, class divide, sexism, a voice for the powerless, excluded or marginalised from society

Welfare pluralism disadvantages

\-Often lack adequate funds to be as effective as they would like to be because the government don't have enough funds to give charities, small scale, not enough donations / money to give - cost of living casts

\-Do not exist in all areas where they are needed due to underfunding, not enough volunteers, lock of public awareness and competition for donations

\-Under severe pressure as a result of funding cuts from the government so it is harder to help people, they cannot pay for resources especially with the cost of living crisis

Private sector - privatisation

\-Provides welfare services such as private hospitals, schools, care homes, pensions and medical insurance such as BUPA.

\-New right would argue that the private sector is more efficient and more effective

\-Access to the private sector is only available to those that can afford it. The most disadvantaged therefore may not be able to get services it the state doesn't provide them

\-People who have the money can pay to 'queue jump’ eg., paying to see a private consultant who can but them at the top of a waiting list

Marxist view on privatisation

would criticise this because it benefits the rich and creates a bigger class divide. The government should be providing because private businesses will exploit people for profit. Myth of meritocracy and fake caring face of capitalism (Pearce)

Theoretical approaches to welfare - Marxism

See the welfare state mainly as a way of buying off working class protest. This is done by reducing the risk to social order and political stability caused by extreme inequality, ill health and poverty. By keeping the labor force healthy and efficient, it creates a caring face of capitalism (Pearce). The truth is that the bourgeoise want to keep their workforce healthy so that they can continue to exploit them in the workplace

Theoretical approaches to welfare - Feminism

Emphasise the way the welfare state supports patriarchy, and the inadequacy of the welfare state to meet the needs of women. They point out the way the benefits system is frequently based on contributions made up by full time workers, who are less likely to be women. The state also makes assumptions that care will be undertaken for free by women who rely on being financially supported by their husbands - Beveridge report

Theoretical approaches to welfare - The Social Democratic Approach

universalism (welfare if needed should be available to all)

\-The government should be responsible for social welfare and for action to eliminate problems that affect the most vulnerable and socially excluded in society A03: people in weak market positions should be helped by the government became the weberian theory recognises individual differences - increases social mobility. in general relative deprivation and marginalisation - Lea and Young

\-Social inequality threatens the stability of society, and wealth and income should be redistributed through taxation. The more you earn the more you pay. The state should provide 'womb to tomb' support to reduce social inequality and tackle poverty. A03: Beveridge report - aiming to destroy the 5 giants using the NHS. Education, benefits and social services

\-Benefits should be available to all be cause means tested benefits create a stigma on those claiming them. This means that sometimes those entitled to benefits wont claim them. Means testing also puts people off from getting low paid jobs as they are not much better oft working than being on benefits A03: The New right wouldn't agree with this because they'd argue that this creates dependency culture and makes a nanny state. They say the underclass is good and they should receive stigma because it stops people claiming benefits, producing a nanny state.

\-The need for more social cohesion-greater equality in health care, education, and employment promotes a more cohesive and less divided society. AO3: feminist would support this because they advocate for equality an equal society will reduce societies issues but say this isn't happening yet, Marxists would agree because they want to see equality between social classes

Theoretical approaches to welfare - The New Right Approach

Individualism (everyone must be independent and not rely on the state)

Approach developed during the Conservative government between 1979 and 1997 when the aim was to 'roll back' the welfare state and make people more independent. Approach also known as the market liberal approach because it believes that individual should have the freedom to choose welfare provision for themselves

\-The generosity of the nanny welfare state is seen as undermining personal responsibility and people's willingness to work and support themselves. Charles Murray (1989) and Marsland (1989) argue that the welfare state has created a dependency culture and a work shy underclass. They avoid work and rely on welfare benefits which is known as perverse incentives - encourages lone parenthood as women realized they will be supported financially by the state.

Welfare state criticisms

Feminists - welfare system isn't generous so won't is encourage women to rely on it. The patriarchy controlling females false assumptions create negative views of women

New right- welfare services are better quality when they are not provided by the state. Taxation should be kept to a minimum shounidn't be wasted on providing welfare benefits free healthcare to those unable to support themselves- undeserving poor. State benefits should be restricted to the very poo§r and those unable to work through sickness or disability. The rest of the population should provide their own welfare such as private medicine and private pension plans

The New right and Conservative government 1979-1997

Social democratic, Marxist and feminist disagree with New right - patriarchal assumptions

Functionalist agree- Neo functionalists, Weber - social mobility improving market situation

Main aims of new right and conservative government

\-Raise quality of welfare through competition, reduce in efficiency, eliminate dependency culture and develop principles of self-help

\-Target benefits to the 'deserving poor' such as the sick and disabled, beneficial for sick and disabled as they cannot work

\-The rest of the population were encouraged to rely on their own resources than those of the state. Weber says social mobility is possible so using resources the poor can get out of their situation. CRITICAL - feminist disagree because it encourages informal welfare provision- patriarchal assumption

\-There were serious cuts in welfare spending and benefits. Poor don't have enough to survive on if they have barriers meaning they can't work. Encourages individualism and reduces dependency culture (Marsland and Murray). CRITICAL - social democrats would criticise this because they want more support. Marxists would say they're cutting it for the ruling class benefit to keep power and control

\-Child support allowance (csa) was introduced to penalise absent fathers. Feminists would agree with this policy mostly but it is forcing the nuclear family structure. Patriarchal assumption that mother is main care-giver. New right says it increases individual responsibility as the government won't pay

New Labour Government 1997-2010

Took a more social democratic approach but still some elements off new right approach

New labour government policies

\-An increase in how much people could claim in benefits. Pensions for the elderly were increased and big increases in spending on healthcare and education. (Social Democratic)

\-The introduction of the national minimum wage (1999). Introduction of tax credits to held the lowest paid a in society. This would help to up peoples wages and would help overcome the poverty trap by making work pay more benefits (Social Democratic)

\-The introduction of the 'Family Intervention Project’. This helped to tackle the cycle of deprivation and the passing of poverty from one generation to the next, by intervening in families where there were multiple problems and anti social behaviour. (New right and Social Democratic)

\-An increase in childcare and nursery education with all 3&4 year olds guaranteed 5 half days in nursery (Social Democratic)

\-Sure start centres were opened to provide parenting advice/baby groups for disadvantaged/minority groups (Social Democratic)

\-A neighbourhood renewal strategy to regenerate the most deprived communities and to help improve the health and education of the most disadvantaged. This involved spend in more money on social housing (Social Democratic)

\-1 in 4 children lived in poverty at this time. Labour wanted to reduce child poverty with the aim  of eliminating it within generations. This included getting women back to work through schemes such as 'New deal'. (Social Democratic and Feminism)

Coalition government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrat’s 2010 - 2015

Combined both the elements of the New right and the more supportive Social democratic approach of New Labour. Although there was a more New right emphasis.

Re-emergence of New right

\-The coalition government showed themselves through a greater emphasis on individual responsibility and self help. There was a re-emergence of the 'deserving' and undeserving poor' and a focus on tackling. ‘Dependency culture’.

\-Foucault (1991) - there was an intensifying process of disciplining those on benefits ongoing checks to see is they were actively seeking work, sanctioning those (removal of benefits) who failed to comply

\-The language of welfare took on support for 'strivers and 'hard working families’ with disdain for those on benefits being regarded as 'shirkers'

Policies to tackle dependency culture:

\-There was a stricter definition imposed as to what being incapable of work really meant. New medical tests were introduced which were much harsher with the aim of cutting the number of people claiming sickness benefits. Feminists - medical tests are made for mon so it's less likely to work for women. This negatively effects women as they may not realise they have something

\-Benefits for the disabled particularly families with disabled children were cut. Social democratic-in the position through no fault of their own, Weber- weak market situations not their fault

\-Sure start centres were either cased down completely or suffered unto to funding. Targets set by New Labour reduce child poverty were also abandoned. Social democratic - set up in disadvantaged areas - people notable to escape the poverty trap. Feminsis- single mothers have more burden

\-The level of child benefit paid to parents was frozen for 3 years which meant the value of the benefit did not increase The number of children you could claim for was also limited to 3. Feminists - would criticise this patriarchal assumption of providing childcare

\-Housing benefit was capped depending on which area you lived in. This then forced people out of the inner cities to the North where rents were cheaper. However, this affected poor families the most as there areas had higher rates of unemployment. Benefits were also reduced for those who had a spare bedroom. This became known as the 'bedroom tax'. New right would agree as it makes sure only the deserving poor get council houses. The New right want efficiency, not wasting council larger houses which aren't needed but the waiting list is too long to do this. Post modernists highlight individual circumstances

\-The ending of the Educational Maintenance Allowance (EMA) and higher university fees had the worst effect on the educational prospects of the poorest groups in society. Marxists would criticis this because it enforces the class divide as university is only accessible for the rich. Impacts working class progression to higher eduction. Cultural reproduction (Willis) Key Marxist. Weber - market position wont change, keep disadvantaged in weak market positions.

The Inverse Care Law

Those whose need is greatest get the least spent on them and those whose need is greatest and get the least spent on them.

Julian Le Grand (1982)

argued that most welfare spending consists of universal benefits going to everyone (state pensions, free healthcare and education) or is spent in a way that provides services from which the middle class have most to gain

Class inequality

\-Make better use of the health service as they are more assertive with doctors and more likely to be referred for further treatment

\-Receive more funding in education as children more likely to stay in education

\-More likely to commute to work so benefit from spending on public transport

\-More likely to use public services such as libraries, parks etc

Ethnic inequality

\-Discrimination in education due to the ethnocentric curriculum - this leads to lower qualifications and lower paid jobs

\-Wood did a study which found ethnic minorities are less likely to be recruited

\-Inequality act 2010 - not effective because people say it isn't due to race

\-White- British more likely to get higher paid jobs

\-Effect of this inequality is marginalisation so they will feel excluded - social exclusion

Gender inequality

\-Women have a dual burden as they are responsible for unpaid domestic labour

\-The gender pay gap means that women are paid-no punishment for this less than men for the same work

\-Women more likely to provide child care so cannot work as many hours

\-Patriarchal assumptions - women will take care of children

\-Women have lower pensions overall due to women living longer they get more money over time

Welfare state IS succeeding

\-Free healthcare through the NHS is universal (for everyone)

\-Policies to support most vulnerable - council houses and free school meals

\-Free state education - gives chances of a good life and qualifications to everyone

\-Extra payments - £20 lift in universal credit, furlough

\-Cradle to grave security

\-Services available to vulnerable groups

Welfare state ISN’T succeeding

\-Cutting benefits and not enough in the first place. Not high enough to support people out of poverty

\-Bedroom tax-people in council houses are being penalised

\-Inequality within wealth, education, housing and employment

\-NHS failing to cope with demands

\-Middle days benefit mostly from education

\-Lack of mental health support or for disabled

\-Stigma with benefits - people 'scrounging' from the state

The future of the welfare state

The two competing views of the social democratic and new right approach have become less of a divide in recent years. This is because of all of the mainstream parties are changing. The soaring costs of the welfare state suggests that the following will be concerns for all governments in the future.

What is the labour process?

Refers to the role that people play as they apply their labour at work to produce goods and services. It also refers to the conditions in which people perform their work, the skills they use, and the amounts of autonomy (independance) and control they have over their work

Work in industrial industries

No employee welfare, 1750 - 15% lived in town/city, 1850 - 80%, 1900 - 85%. Rise in factory work, mass production and exploitation. Decline in family size as not enough space and cannot afford to have large families. Risk of ill health and disease - Beveridge report.

Ruling class own means of production and the working class sell their labour for low income.

Workers initially reluctant to submit power and control to factory owners, control, discipline, productivity and motivation of the workforce became major concerns for owners and managers of the means of production. This gave rise to 'low-trust' systems of management control - the idea that workers cannot be trusted, and need to be closely supervised or monitored

Abercrombie et al (2000)

four types of strategy for controlling the work force: responsible autonomy, bureaucratic control, technical control and direct control

Responsible autonomy:

workers given wider degree of discretion/control, and are less controlled by direct superiors. Workforce is more self-policing

Bureaucratic control:

workers controlled by hierarchy of authority; every work has immediate superior, and format rules controlling their job.

Technical control:

nature of jobs/speed of work are controlled by technology, with each worker given a limited range of tasks, involving little skill

Direct control:

clear supervision of workforce by owners/managers. Typically found in small businesses; not very common today, in larger companies

Scientific management:

management of workers should follow scientific principles-strict control of workforce, and performance of tasks in same way as a piece of machinery

Taylorism:

breaking work down into simplest elements. Managers give workers clear instructions on exactly how to do their job

Idea of using technology not only to produce goods but also as a means of controlling the work force developed by Taylor who believed in the principles of scientific management - workers in an industrial firm should be tightly controlled and perform tasks in the same way as a piece of machinery. Taylor believed that the best means by which management could reduce the power of workers over the labour process, increase the workforce and ensure maximum output of goods by:

\-Making the labour process completely independent of the autonomy (decision making), creativity, and ability of the individual worker

\-Defining every task in work, down to the smallest detail, and working out how long each task should take eg. McDonalds

\-Removing as much skill as possible from the workers jobs, breaking each task down into small, simple and repetitive talks that can be completed with little skill.

Workers then became extensions of the machinery they operate. Lean approach-more efficiency

Fordism

Taylor's principles were used in 1908, USA by Henry Ford. He used assembly lines to produce the first mass produced cars. Cheap standardised cars were produced with work broken down into small repetitive tasks that required little skill and training, keeping labour costs low. Workers were controlled closely by managers and supervisors who planned, co-ordinated and controlled the production process. Workers lacked skills, knowledge of the production process and control of work speed. Mass of unthinking robots.

Marxists and fordism

Marxist would be critical as it enforces a divide between the owners and employees .It keep the bourgeoisie controlling and exploiting the proletariat. It removes workers ability to be critical thinkers

McDonaldisation

Process of workplaces/society becoming like a fast food restaurant

A contemporary example of the way work today employs similar Taylorist/Fordist low-trust principles of scientific management is found in Ritzer’s (2011) McDonaldisation thesis. The principles of a fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more sectors of society