Dev Counseling Midterm

epigenetic principle

development occurs by predetermined unfolding of personalities in eight stages; progress is in partially determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages

maladaptation

involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much

Stage 1 - Erikson

trust vs. mistrust - the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be able to blindly trust the caregivers for providing those

stage 1 - Erikson - positive outcome

if needs are met consistently and responsively, infants not only will develop a secure attachment with the parents but will learn to trust their environment in general

stage 1 - Erikson - negative outcome

if needs are not met consistently and responsively, the infant will develop mistrust toward people and things in their environment, even towards themselves

stage 2 - Erikson

autonomy vs. doubt - ages 1-2, toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves; their self-control and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage

stage 2 - Erikson - positive outcome

if parents encourage their child’s use of initiative and reassure them when they make mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence

stage 2 - Erikson - negative outcome

if parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child’s acts of independence, they my begin to feel ashamed of their behavior, or have too much doubt of their abilities

stage 3 - Erikson

initiative vs. guilt - ages 2-4, children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them; now must learn to achieve a balance between eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies

stage 3 - Erikson - positive outcome

if parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without guilt, that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their imagination and engaging in make-believe role plays

stage 3 - Erikson - negative outcome

if parents are not encouraging or are disciplining inconsistently, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent

stage 4 - Erikson

industry vs. inferiority - ages 6-12, school is the important event at this stage; children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider; and they do all these while making the transition from the world of home into the world of peers

stage 4 - Erikson - positive outcome

if children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence

stage 4 - Erikson - negative outcome

if children do not discover some type of pleasure in intellectual stimulation, they will develop a sense of inferiority

stage 5 - Erikson

identity vs. role confusion - ages 12-18, adolescents must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts; adolescents who have successfully dealt with the earlier stages of conflicts are ready for the “identity crisis,” which is considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face

stage 5 - Erikson - positive outcome

if the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, they will come out of this stage with a strong identity, and ready to plan for the future

stage 5 - Erikson - negative outcome

if the adolescent does not solve this conflict successfully, they will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and their role in life in general

stage 6 - Erikson

intimacy vs. isolation - ages 19-40, the most important events in this stage are love relationships; not matter how successful you are with your work, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy

stage 6 - Erikson - positive outcome

adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense of identity

stage 6 - Erikson - negative outcome

adult individuals who cannot form close relationships will fear commitment, feel isolated, and are unable to depend on anybody in the world

stage 7 - Erikson

generativity vs. stagnation - ages 40-65, generativity refers to the adult’s ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through parenting, for instance; adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this stage reflects the need to create a living legacy

stage 7 - Erikson - positive outcome

people can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children or helping the next generation in other ways

stage 7 - Erikson - negative outcome

if this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience stagnation later in life

stage 8 - Erikson

integrity vs. despair - ages 65-death, old age is a time for reflecting upon one’s own life and its role in the big scheme of things and seeing entire life as positive or negative

stage 8 - Erikson - positive outcome

if an adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within oneself and with others, there is acceptance of death with a sense of integrity

stage 8 - Erikson - negative outcome

the adult feels as if they have not achieved a sense of fulfillment about life, they will despair and fear death

constructivism

children construct new schemas based on their changing views

adaptation

all living things adapt to environmental stimuli

equilibrium

stage of homeostasis in which schemas explain the world

disequilibrium

schemas are not sufficient to explain experience

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations

sensorimotor: six stages of development

reflexive stage: 0-2 months

primary circular reactions: 2-4 months

secondary circular reactions: 4-8 months

coordination of secondary reactions: 8-12 months

tertiary circular reactions: 12-18 months

invention of new means through mental combination: 18-24

preoperational phase

2-4 years, transductive reasoning, thinking of something without the object being present by use of language

conservation

quantity remains same regardless of appearance changes; preoperational child sees spatial differences as size differences

conservation by age

7-8: conservation of substance

9-10: conservation of area; conservation of mass

formal operations

11-12 years: able to think hypothetically and abstractly; generates abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident; thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality; formal logical systems can be acquired; can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes; propositional logic (as-if and if-then steps)

Vogotsky’s cultural theory

development is a process that begins at birth and continues until death

zone of proximal development

gap or difference between what the child can learn unaided and what they can learn with the help of an adult

Vygotsky’s egocentric speech

“speech on its way inward;” instead of fading away as Piaget believed, it went “underground” to become inner speech, which is a form of language spoken to oneself that is identified with the pure thought of adults; is partially social - child’s primitive efforts to remain in contact with other people

Vygotsky’s idea about language

language and thought are of independent origins; emphasized the existence of intellect occurring before or without speech; thought development is determined by language (i.e. by the linguistic tools of thought and by social-cultural experience of the child)

Vygotsky on speech

most significant moment in course of intellectual development, which gives birth to purely human formats of practical and abstract intelligence, two previously completely independent lines of development converge; non-egocentric utterances are social and communicative; egocentric utterances are individual and self-regulating (occur when the child capable of organized reasoning)

scaffolding

children perform better and solve more difficult problems when they were guided and supported by another competent individual

potential developmental level

level of competence without guidance from another person

instincts - Freud

drives, urges, needs

life instincts - Freud

survival

death instincts - Freud

self-destruction

unconscious motivation

instincts, needs, inner forces, past unresolved issues

mind structures - Freud

id, ego, superego

id

seeks pleasure, wants needs met; immediate gratification

ego

attempts to gratify need in reality; problem solves

superego

internalized moral values and beliefs

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

oral stage - Freud

ages 0-1.5; focus on mouth; both insufficient and forceful feeding can result in fixation in this stage

symptoms of oral fixation

smoking, constant chewing on gum, pens, pencils etc., nail biting, overeating, drinking, sarcasm

anal stage - Freud

ages 1.5-3; focus on anus; if the parents are too lenient and fail to instill society’s rules about bowel movement control, the child will derive pleasure and success from the expulsion; individuals with a fixation on this mode of gratification are excessively sloppy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant

anal stage - Freud - consequences

if a child receives excessive pressure and punishment from parents during toilet training, child experiences anxiety over bowel movements and takes pleasure in being able to withdrawn from such functions; individuals who fail to progress pass this stage are obsessively clean and orderly, and intolerant of those who aren’t and they may also be very careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, conforming and passive-aggressive

phallic stage - Freud

ages 4-5; focus on genitals; gratifying activities are masturbation and genital fondling; the most challenging stage; key event at this stage is the opposite sex, together with envy and fear of the same-sex parent

phallic fixation

men: anxiety and guilty feelings about sex, fear of castration, narcissistic personality

women: never progress past this stage fully and maintain a sense of envy and inferiority

latency stage - Freud

ages 5-6; no focus; this is a period during which sexual feelings are suppressed to allow children to focus their energy on other aspects of life; a time of learning, adjusting to the social environment outside of home absorbing the culture, forming beliefs and values, developing same-sex friendships, engaging in sports, etc.; lasts until puberty, upon which children become capable of reproduction, and their sexuality is re-awakened

genital stage - Freud

puberty+; focus on genitals; gratifying activities are masturbation and heterosexual relationships

genital fixations

this stage does not cause any fixation; if people experience difficulties at this stage, and many people do, the damage was done in earlier oral, anal, and phallic stages; these people come into this last stage of development with fixations from earlier stages

neonate

an infant less than four weeks old; established feeding patterns; bonding between parents and infant begins; risk for infection that may become more serious are higher; many birth or congenital defects are first noted

sleeping habits for neonates

usually sleep 20 minutes to 4 hours at a time, up to 20 hours; their stomachs are too small to keep them full for long, so they need to be fed every few hours; babies have different sleeping habits, but at three months most babies sleep 6 to 8 hours a night

neonates and crying

newborns might cry for several hours a day, could be for: hunger, tiredness, too cold or too hot, need their diaper changed, to be comforted, have gas, over-stimulated, sick

neonate reflexes

newborns maintain the position they had in the womb (fetal postition): clenched fists, bent elbows, hips, knees,

types of neonate reflexes

rooting, sucking, startle, tonic neck, grasp, stepping

rooting reflex

newborn turns in the direction of food and is ready to suck; stroking a newborn’s cheek will cause this response

sucking reflex

if you place an object in a baby’s mouth, the baby naturally begins to suck

startle response

baby throws out their arms and legs and then curls them in when startled; response often includes crying

tonic neck reflex

the baby turns their head to one side and holds out the arm on the same side

grasp reflex

baby’s fingers close tightly around an object placed in their palm

stepping reflex

baby’s feet imitate a stepping action when they are held upright with the feet touching a hard surface; baby’s arms, legs, and chin might tremble, especially when crying; this ocurs because newborns’ nervous systems are not fully developed

neonate vision

newborns can see, but their eyes might be crossed because it is hard for them to focus at first; can see movement and the contrast between black and white objects; at the first couple of months, its easier to look at things from an angle; by 2 to 3 months, babies have more control of their eye muscles and are able to focus their eyes on one thing; can also follow objects with their eyes

neonate hearing

newborns can distinguish between different sounds; they can recognize familiar voices, so caregivers should talk to a baby often; can turn toward the sound of caregiver voices; to newborns language sounds like music with different tones and rhythms

brain development

the fetus has 1 billion brain cells which are proliferating at a rate of 50 thousand/second; these cells will move throughout the body and will do specific tasks; the brain is the only organ incomplete at birth

neurons in the brain

neurons develop rapidly before birth, but after birth, brain development consists of wiring and rewiring the synapses between neurons; new synapses are formed while others are pruned away

brain plasticity

use it or lose it principle; at 3 months, the brain has the potential to distinguish several hundred spoken sounds and over the next few months, the brain organizes itself to recognize only the sounds it hears’ during early childhood, the brain retains its ability to discriminate sounds has discarded

brain development and stimulation

children raised in deprived conditions who experience little positive stimulation from caregivers have brains that are smaller than children who grow up in sensory rich environments within meaningful relationships; brain architecture is shaped by genes and experiences; “serve and return” between baby and caregiver; stress and chronic or toxic stress short circuit brain architecture and set the child up for long term problems, as well as neglect

first language transition

occurs at the end of first year with appearance of words and basic vocabulary

second language transition

changes from one word to combination into phrases and sentences

third language transition

simple sentences to complex sentences that are connected

cooing

2-5 months, early language sounds resemble vowels

babbling

5-6 months, sound approximate speech; 7-8 months syllables appear

telegraph speech

18-24 months, more meaning appears in two or three words than appears superficially

synchrony

adjusting to infant needs; using nurturance to support baby

symmetry

infant’s capacity for attention; responding to interactions

entrainment

rhythm between caregiver and infant

autonomy

power and responsibility of infant in interactions; interchanges between caregiver and child

reciprocal interactions

result in mutual change in participants

bolby’s attachment theory

attachment behavior is any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived as better able to cope with the world

attachment chronology - 4 months

discrimination of stimuli; tracking of mother

attachment chronology - 9 months

separation anxiety; strange anxiety

attachment chronology - 2-3 years

intensity and frequency of attachment remains consistent; notices impending departure

attachment chronology - 3-4 years

growing confident; more secure in strange place with relatives (subordinate attachment figures)

attachment chronology - 4-10 years

less intense attachment (still strong)

attachment chronology - adolescence

weakening attachment to parents; peers and other more important

attachment chronology - adult

bonding to trusted friends, relatives, and younger generation

ainsworth’s strange situation

securely attached, avoidant attached, ambivalently attached, disorganized/disoriented

securely attached

mother base for exploration; separation considerable distress, ceased exploration, sought mother

avoidant attached

rarely cried when separated; avoided mother on reunion; mothers seemed to dislike the child