The world around us

Mechanical weathering

Mechanical weathering

Freeze-thaw cycles cause expansion of water in cracks, breaking rocks apart. Common in high-altitude areas.

Chemical weathering

Rainwater, slightly acidic, reacts with minerals like limestone, causing dissolution.

Biological weathering

Roots grow into rock fractures, and organisms like lichens produce acids that contribute to rock breakdown.

Sliding

Material moves down a slope along a straight surface, often triggered by heavy rain.

Slumping

Rotational movement along a curved surface, common on coastal cliffs.

Abrasion

Sediment in water acts like sandpaper, wearing away rock surfaces.

Hydraulic Action

The force of water entering cracks compresses air, causing rock to break apart.

Attrition

Rock particles collide, becoming smoother and smaller.

Solution

Chemical reactions dissolve rocks like chalk and limestone.

Traction

Larger particles rolled along the riverbed during high flow.

Saltation

Sand-sized particles bounce along the bed, lifted and dropped by the flow.

Suspension

Fine particles like silt carried in the water column, giving rivers a muddy appearance.

Waterfalls

Form at a layer of hard rock over soft rock; the soft rock erodes faster, creating a vertical drop.

Gorges

Deep valleys with steep sides, formed by retreating waterfalls or river erosion over geological time.

V-Shaped Valleys

Created by vertical erosion in river upper courses, where steep gradients lead to fast-flowing water.

Floodplains

Formed by deposition of alluvium during floods, flat areas prone to seasonal flooding.

Levees

Natural embankments along river edges, built up by repeated flood deposits.

Meanders

Curved bends formed by lateral erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank, creating a sinuous river path.

Ox-Bow Lakes

Crescent-shaped lakes formed when a meander is cut off from the main river, usually during a flood.

Headlands and Bays

Form where alternating layers of hard and soft rock are eroded at different rates, creating protrusions (headlands) and indentations (bays).

Caves

Formed by wave action eroding weak points in headlands.

Arches

Created when caves erode through a headland.

Stacks

Isolated columns of rock formed after an arch collapses.

Beaches

Depositional landforms consisting of sand, shingle, or pebbles. Shaped by wave action and tidal processes.

Spits

Narrow land extensions formed by longshore drift, often curving into the sea due to changes in wind and wave direction.

Deindustrialization

The decline of heavy industries like coal mining, steel production, and shipbuilding has had a devastating impact on Northern England. These industries provided many jobs and were the cornerstone of the region's economy.

Suburbanization

This refers to the movement of people from cities to surrounding suburbs.

Counter-urbanization

This is the movement of people from cities to rural areas. It can be driven by a desire for a more peaceful and less crowded lifestyle, lower living costs, or proximity to nature.

Re-urbanization

This refers to the movement of people back to cities from suburbs or rural areas. It can be driven by job opportunities, access to amenities and cultural attractions, or a desire for a more vibrant and walkable lifestyle.

Air masses

are large regions of air near the Earth’s surface with similar temperatures and moisture content.

Polar Maritime

Cool and moist air masses originating over the North Atlantic Ocean. These air masses bring cool temperatures and cloudy conditions with frequent drizzle or light rain.

Tropical Continental

Warm and dry air masses originating over continental Europe or North Africa. These air masses bring warm, sunny weather with little rainfall.

Polar Continental

Cold and dry air masses originating over land in high northern latitudes. These air masses bring cold weather with a risk of frost or snow.

North Atlantic Drift

 is a warm ocean current that originates from the Gulf of Mexico and flows along the western seaboard of Europe, including the British Isles.

Continentality

refers to the influence of a large landmass on a climate. The greater the distance from a large landmass, the more maritime a climate tends to be.

Mechanization of Farming:

Tractors and Machinery, Irrigation Systems, Pesticides and Fertilisers, Genetically Modified Crops

Commercial Fishing

Fishing Vessels and Gear, Aquaculture, Sustainable Practices

Natural Gas

Widely used for electricity generation and heating.

Coal

Historically a primary source of energy, though usage has declined due to environmental concerns.

Oil

Mainly used in transport, some industry, and heating.

Nuclear Energy

 Using nuclear reactions to generate electricity

Abiotic Components

Weather, Climate, Soil

Biotic Components

Plants, Animals, Humans

Polar Regions

 Arctic and Antarctic regions.

Coral Reefs

 Shallow tropical and subtropical ocean waters.

Grasslands

Central North America (prairies), South America (pampas), Central Eurasia (steppes), and Africa (savannas).

Temperate Forests

Eastern North America, Europe, and parts of Asia.

Tropical Rainforests

Near the equator, including the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, Southeast Asia.

Hot Deserts

 North Africa (Sahara), Middle East (Arabian Desert), Southwestern USA (Mojave).

Amazon Rainforest

 South America, primarily in Brazil, but also spanning Peru, Colombia, and other countries.

Central American Rainforests

Stretching from southern Mexico to Panama.

Congo River Basin

Central Africa, covering countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, and Gabon.

Madagascan Rainforests

Island of Madagascar.

South East Asian Rainforests

Countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

Australasian Rainforests

located at Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.

Great Barrier Reef

located at Off the coast of Queensland, Australia.

Red Sea Coral Reef

 located between Africa and Asia.

New Caledonia Barrier Reef

located at South Pacific Ocean.

Mesoamerican Barrier Reef

located from the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico down to Honduras.

Florida Reef

 located at Off the coast of Florida, USA.

Andros Coral Reef

located at Bahamas

Social Development

Refers to improvements in the quality of life for individuals, including education, healthcare, and housing.

Economic Development

Involves growth in wealth and income, often measured by indicators such as GDP and employment rates.

Environmental Development

Focuses on sustainable practices that protect and improve the natural environment, ensuring long-term ecological balance.

GNI per Capita (Gross National Income per Capita)

Measures the average income of a country's citizens.

Human Development Index (HDI)

Combines data on life expectancy, education, and per capita income.

Advanced Countries (ACs)

Countries with high levels of income, industrialization, and modern infrastructure. Examples include the United States, Germany, and Japan.

Emerging and Developing Countries (EDCs)

Nations experiencing rapid economic growth and industrialization but still facing significant challenges. Examples include Brazil, India, and China.

Low-Income Developing Countries (LIDCs)

Countries with low levels of income, limited industrialization, and often high levels of poverty. Examples include Afghanistan, Ethiopia, and Haiti.

Bilateral Aid

Direct assistance from one country to another.

Multilateral Aid

Assistance provided by multiple countries through international organizations like the UN or World Bank.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Independent organizations providing aid.

Landscape

Physical features such as mountains, rivers, and plains can affect agriculture, transportation, and settlement patterns.

Climate

Determines agricultural productivity, influences health, and affects the availability of water resources.

Ecosystems

Biodiversity can contribute to tourism and sustainable resource use, while also affecting the local climate and agriculture.

Natural Resources

Availability and type of resources like minerals, oil, and fertile soil can significantly influence economic activities and trade.

Governance

The stability, policies, and effectiveness of the government can impact economic growth, investment, and social services.

International Relations

Diplomatic ties, trade agreements, and political alliances affect economic opportunities and challenges.

Imports

Goods and services brought into the country which may include essential commodities, technology, and capital goods.

Exports

Goods and services sold to other countries which are crucial for earning foreign exchange and economic growth.

Trade Balance

The difference between exports and imports, which impacts the country’s economy and development.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Investments from other countries in businesses and infrastructure, which can boost economic growth, create jobs, and bring in new technologies.

Aid and Loans

Financial assistance from international organizations and other countries can support development projects but may also lead to debt dependency.

City

is defined by its substantial population density and infrastructure that supports commerce, industry, and residential areas.

Megacity

 Defined as a metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people.

World City

 They typically host international corporate headquarters, major banks, financial institutions, international organizations, and significant cultural institutions.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, increase concentrations of greenhouse gases (e.g., CO₂, CH₄, N₂O) in the atmosphere, trapping more heat and causing global warming.

Hadley Cell

Warm air rises at the equator, moves poleward, cools, and sinks at around 30°N and 30°S, creating subtropical deserts.

Ferrel Cell

Mid-latitude circulation with air rising at around 60°N and 60°S and sinking at 30°N and 30°S.

Polar Cell

Cold air sinks at the poles, moves towards the equator, warms, and rises at around 60°N and 60°S.