Chapter 14: Experimental Chemistry
Data Gathering
- Quantitative chemical experiments involve numbers
- the concentration of an acid in .345M
- Qualitative chemical experiments do not involve numbers
- Silver nitrate forms a white precipitate when added to a solution
- Observations and details of an experiment should be recorded in a notebook.
- contains complete experiment description, the equipment, chemicals used, and occasionally diagrams
Calculations
- Calculations can be done via dimensional analysis or memorized equations/laws
Accuracy and Precision
- Accuracy is the closeness between the measured value and true value
- Determinate errors can affect accuracy
- poor technique or incorrectly calibrated tools
- Precision is the closeness of repeated measurements to each other
- Indeterminate errors are a measure of precision
- errors in the last digit of measurement
- random errors that cannot be eliminated
Significant Figures
- Significant figures (sig figs) is the precision of a measure number
- Digits are significant if:
- digit is not a zero
- the zero is embedded
- trailing zero is in a number that has a decimal point
- digits are not significant if zeros are the left of all nonzero digits
- Exact numbers involve no uncertainty
- five plate at the dinner table
- 4.184 joules in each calorie
- How to obtain and write correct answers:
- number with the fewest sig figs in a multiplication or division problem determines the number of sig figs in the answer
- number with the fewest decimal places in addition or subtraction problems determines the number of decimal places in the answers
Uncertainty
- Two types of uncertainty: absolute and relative
- Absolute uncertainty is the uncertainty of the last digit of measurement.
- for 45.47mL, the last digit is uncertain and the it could be ±.01mL
- Relative uncertainty of a number is the absolute uncertaintly divided by the number itself
- (.01mL) / (45.47mL) = 2x10^-4
Rounding
- Steps of rounding:
- If the digit just after the kept digits is less than 5, the remaining digits are dropped
- rounding 6.23499 to three sig figs yield 6.23 because 4 is less than 5
- if the digit after the kept digit is 5 or more, the last kept digit is increased by one
- 34.25589 to three sig figs yields 34.3
- 8.445000 to three sig figs yields 8.45
Graphs
- Graphs illustrate the relationship between two variables
- X-axis is typically independent variable
- experimenter selects independent variable (IV)
- concentrations of standard solutions that a chemist prepares
- Y-axis is typically dependent variable
- dependent variable (DV) is a measured property of the IV.
- the amount of light that each standard solution absotbs
- constructing graphs:
- label x and y axis
- number the axes
- plot the data points and draw lines to connect dots
Determination of Physical Properties
Scale Reading
- Parallax errors are caused by incorrect reading techniques
- Meniscus of liquid is caused by the surface tension, which causes the curvature
Determination of Mass by Weighing
- Weight = (gravitational constant)(mass)
- Samples collected on balances should be collected in appropriate containers, not directly on the balance.
Liquid Volume Measurement
- Accurate liquid measurements can be made with pipets or burets
- Glassware with āTDā or āto deliverā is pouring the the volume stated
- graduated cylinders
- Glassware with āTCā to āto containā will not pour the full amount in the container because a film, or excess solution, will remain
- volumetric flasks
- Burets are controlled by a valve called the stockpot.
- should be rinsed with the solution, not distilled water, before filling
Temperature Measurement
- Thermometers are used for temperature measurement
- Mercury is used to measure temperature
Determination of Melting and Boiling Points
- Experiments determining boiling point must be done at 1 atmosphere of pressure for accuracy
- Closed-end capillary tubes can be used for melting point determination
Determination of Density
- Density = Mass / Volume
- density of liquid or solid = grams of material / cubic centimeters of material
- density of gasses = grams of gas / liters of gas
- pycnometers can be used to determine liquid density
Determination of Specific Heat
- a solid, typically metal, is heated to a certain temperature then submerged in water, where the temperature of the water is measured
- q = (mass)(specific heat)(ĪT)
Sample Manipulations
Heating
- Bumping is a violent burst of boiling that could splatter hot liquid
- typically occurs in test tubes
- occurs because burner flame superheats one portion of liquid
- hot water baths, steam baths, sand bath, and electrical heating can minimize bumping
- powders added to very hot liquids can cause bumping
Cooling
- Crushed ice bath and water is most effective to cool
- Ice is particularly efficient
- Heat-resistant lab glassware should be used because glass will shatter at rapid temperature change
Mixing
- Volumetric flasks should be used to prepare molar concentrations of specific volumes
- acid should be added to water
- if water is added to sulfuric acid, it will not mix because of the density, causing high heat and splattering/boiling
Dilution
- (Cinitial)(Vinitial) = (Cfinal)(Vfinal)
- where c is concentration
- v is volume
Gas Collection
- Pneumatic troughs can collect gas produced in a reaction
Separation Techniques
Precipitation
- For Ba 2+ (aq) + SO4 2- (aq) ā BaSO4 (s)
- Barium solution should be added slowly with rapid stirring to precipitate sulfate ions as barium sulfate
- once precipitation is complete, the mixture should be heated to form the smaller crystals to larger ones for easy filtration
Filtration
- Filtration is used to separate solid particles from a liquid
- Folded, cone-shaped filter paper on a flask lets liquid pass through while solid is left behind
Centrifugation
- Small amounts of precipitate can be collected through centrifugation
- spins at high speeds to compact solid at the bottom
- Supernatant is the clear liquid remaining after centrifugation
Distillation
- Distillation separates two liquids with two different boiling points, one low and one high
Chromatography
- The stationary phase of chromatography has different attractive forces for different parts of the mobile phase
- Different attractive forces cause the mobile phase to move at different speeds
- Rf = (distance of color spot)/ (distance of water)
Instrumental Techniques
pH Determination
- pH meter or pH paper can determine pH
- Litmus paper simply determines if the solution is acidic or basic
Spectroscopy
- Spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a colored solution absorbs
- Absorbance of a sample is the quantity determined by the spectrophotometer
- Reagent blank zeroes out the spectrophotometer to get an accurate reading
- Beerās Law: Absorbance (A) = abc
- a is absorptivity
- b is optical path
- c is concentration
Experimental Reaction
Synthesis of Gasses
- By decomposing certain compounds, gasses can be collected
- KClO3 forms O2 when a catalyst is present
- Gasses that do not react with water can be collected via pneumatic trough
Synthesis of Insoluble Salts
- Precipitated in double-replacement reactions or reactions of gasses with soluble substance
- Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) ā AgCl (s)
- Ba (aq) + SO4 (aq) ā BaSO4 (s)
- Ni (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l) ā NiSO3 (s) + 2H (aq)
Preparation of Soluble Salts
- Can be separated by evaporation, with or without heat
- Pure salt sample can only be obtained if the solution only contains the ions of that salt
- Filtration can be used to separate unneeded ions
Qualitative Analysis of Inorganic Ions
- Qualitative analysis techniques determine if a sample contains a certain ion
- Sequence of reactions used to analyze a sample is called qualitative analysis scheme, or qual-scheme
- When a separation is by filtration, the liquid is called the filtrate.
- When separation is by centrifugation, the liquid is called the supernatant
Chemical Hazards
Highly Flammable Compounds
- Organic compounds, typically with low molar masses
- methane, butane, etc.
Explosive Compounds
- Ethers react to produce explosive peroxides over time
- Dry picric acid is explosive
- nitrogen triiodide and nitroglycerin are shock sensitive
Strong Oxidizers
- Perchloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrogen peroxide can cause immediate skin injury
- Perchloric acid with organic material causes spontaneous combustion
- White phosphorus burn spontaneously in air with hazardous fumes
Compounds Incompatible with Water
- Active metals may react explosively with water
- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ca, Ba, Sr
Compounds with High Heats of Solution
- Substances can emit large amounts of heat in water
- active metals, their solible oxides and hydroxides, and concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids
- calcium oxide and phosphorus pentoxide
- mixing concentrated bases with concentrated acids
Compounds with Possible Health Hazards
- Benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride
- Chlorinated organic compounds