crime and deviance case studies

Moore, atkin and chapman (2000)

police act as filters for society; how response to a crime being reported depends on:

1- how police perceive the seriousness of the crime to be so will dismiss the ‘frivolous’ crimes. hence why historically ‘it’s just a domestic’ and neglecting of sexual offensnces occurred. didn't take Tracey Browne seriously when she reported in 1977- and she was a a victim of Sutcliffe’s.

2- social status of the victim as if homeless, poor, POC, less likely to have been given attention (less dead theory).

3- the criminal’s intelligence level, politeness and cooperation levels with the police all either increase or decrease likelihood of arrest.

lombroso

19th century doctor who said that criminality could be detected though physcial characstics which distniniush them from the rest of the population e.g. big ears or large jawbones (more ‘primitive’ humans).

davies (1973)

minor crime allows people to blow off steam in a relatively harmless way to ensure they stay functional members of society avoiding bigger crimes.

• prostitiuies used by fathers in nuclear families to remove deviant tendencys (less dead theory).

clinord (1974)

crime prompts gov change as society’s social order broken- DBS and Sarah’s law.

Durkheim

functionality of crime:

• “because yesterday’s deviance must become today’s morality”

on punishment:

• needed for boundary maintenance and increasing social solitdary.

• in trad societies purpose is retribution as breaker of value consenus punished.

• In modern society restitiutrive as legal punishment meant to repair damage crime created to society.

Newborn (2013)

Durkheim is the first to suggest crime is both positive and normal; links crime to society’s values while also suggesting how to improve.

Merton (1938): strain theory

based on people’s reaction to the value consensus

key idea: society pressures us with cultural goals and pressures us into success- used the American dream as it placed emphasis on materialism/ success derived from meritocracy.

society provides us with instituilal means of producing these goals e.g. education as it enables societal mobility negating the need for crime.

as Durkheim viewed anomie as being a temporary result of social change, merton sees it as being a permanent feature of society.

vague defention but its a disjunction between socially acceptabel goals and legitimate ways of achieving them.

6 marker structure/timings

3x P.E.

5-6 mins

no yapping, cut to the chase

travis hirschi

• functionalist

anomie influenced him but didn't explain why poeple don’t commit crime so thinks focus should be on what forces people to conform to society (excluded petty/smaller crimes- focused on murdur or assault).

4 bonds of attachment explain why people don’t commit crime- attachment, commitment, involvement and belief.

Albert Cohen

functionlaist in sub-cultural theory

devloped on merton’s theory but had main crictims were:

1- responce to strain theory was that is focus on collective, not indvidiaul

2- not all deviant behaviour linked to acheincing goals or ulitirian success (process killers).

also came up with status frustration and alternative status hierarchys.

street gangs and masculinity:

• way for boys to prove it.

Cloward and Ohlin

functionalist in sub-cultural theory

agreed with Cohen as wc denied access to legitmaite opportunity structures so can’t access opportunities BUT they differ in how not all WC groups respond in same way with their responses varying on account of unequal access to illegitimate oppounity structures as not all who fail in school get wealth from criminal acts.

3 main sub-cultural responses:

1- criminal subculture: organised groups who career criminals can socialise youth into criminal career, may result in material success. most high profile opportunitty.

2- conflict subcultures: gangs organised by young people- attempts to claim terrority leads to ‘turf war’.

3- retreatist subcultures: ‘double failures’ in legitmaite opportunity structures and illegitmaite. criminality fuels high drug use.

Bourdieau

neo- marxist

• cohen’s views on status frustration explains the role of cultural deprivation in wc boys but fails to explain the deliquncey itself.

Box

neo-marxist

• cohen’s ideas about status frustration suggests that the youths who go on to commit deviancy accepted society’s goals in first place.

Pilivan and Blair (1964)

the desire to arrest younger people comes from physical cues from which they make judgements about their character e.g. trackies or hoodies.

Cicourd

typifications (1968):

• desire to arrest people made on these.

• police and probhination officers see ‘typical deliqunets’ as being from: a low income family, single parent families or ethinic minority groups.

• leads to police focusing on certain ‘types’ of people, despite how certain crimes have had people who didn't fit these critera e.g. Susan Atkins and Leslie van houten invlovbves in mason murders (Tate and LaBianca murders) aug 1969 despite both being white MC girls who grew up going to church.

• typeificztiosn leads to ‘selective law enforcement’ with police showing a class and racial bias- offences handling and severity of punishment impacted- inverse seen in how brock turner got 6 months and served 3 months.

social class and crime:

• middle class youth can negotiate their way out of legal trouble and parents can successfully defend their child e.g. by suggesting that the behaviour was non-habitus or saying it was a minimal offence (brock turner had grandparents, parents and family friends all say drinking made him rape).

Reiner

canteen culture:

• ways in which people who share a particular workplace develop a shared set of values and predjucies- conservative canteen culture may explain police discrimination displayed by the police.

• adapted with new media as WhatsApp group chats in Sarah everrad case prove.

labelling theory POV (2000):

• canteen culture exists in the police, leading to typifications (cicourd) and selective law enforcement.

crime coverage trends (2007):

• 1- acceuntates negatives as ‘bad news drives out the good’.

  2- highlights victim culture as audiences positioned to identity with victims (eval of only some).

  3- Law and order portayed as only way to tackle the crime wave.

environmental crime prevention:

• police more effective when targeting profile offenders or crime hotspots, instead of when they clamp down on anti-social behaviour.

Miller (1962): ‘focal concerns’

wc boys socialsiesd into a dissident set of values- oppose the mainstream- with these values becoming the permarent ‘focal concerns’.

similarity to Cohen in that WC boys never accepted the MC values in the first place,

the focal concerns are:

immediate gratification- crime is a immediate reward.

masculnity- control, enables them to be breadwinners, aggresviness mandatory. Media enables this with Gilmore (1990) with masc being presented as impregantors, providers or protecters.

exicment- crime exciting, and as MC can pay for thrills this is how the WC improvises.

fatalism- bound to commit some crime anyways so senseless to wait for circumstances to force it upon you.

resenting authority- crime’s illegal nature breaks the laws made by the RC/MC so a way of expressing their opposing view.

Matza: deliquncey and drift

• not a subcultural theorist

suggests that all people drift in and out of deliquncey so deviants and criminals are very similar- age is a reason for this e.g. youths have least to lose.

we all share ‘subterran’ values but mostly manage to control them; occasionally suspend conforming to mainstream values. protests for instance as anger is public.

evidence in how ‘techniques of neutrisation’ indicate that we know laws have been broken hence the explanation.

5 types: denial of responiablity (wasn't your fault), denial of injury (denying damage), denial of victim (rape culture), condemnation of condemers (accusing people in power of being wrong in some capircay), appeal to higher loyalties (Sutcliffe said his 13 confirmed murders were ‘Gods will’ to destroy prostitues).

Katz (1988)

• post modernist POV

argued crime is seductive; that young men are drawn to it because of how thrilling it is.

Lyng (1990)

• postmodernists

young men like taking risks and engaging in ‘edgework’- going right to the edge of acceptable behaviour and flirting with danger.

Lemert (1973)

studied chronic stuttering amongst Canada’s coastal Inuits that came from cultural pressure to be strong public speakers

primary deviance: rule-breaking acts which haven’t been publicly labelled has little consequences for the individual (the initial speech impendment).

secondary deviance: consequences of response of others to initial minor deviance (development of the chronic stutter).

Reiss (1961)

studied male prostitiuites rejected the deviant label of being gay (it was illegal at the time) as they condisred it their work, not identity.

example of how people can reject powerful labels.

Stanley Cohen

in his study of mocks and rockers Cohen concluded that powerless groups are labelled by media as “folk devils” in a attempt to increase control of the deviance.

Jock Young: Hippies in Notting Hill

example of deviance ampflicition spiral

• marjuna was peripheral to the hippie lifestyle till persecution and labelling by police led hippies to perceive themselves as outsiders, retreat to sub-cultural groups were a deviant subculture formed with marjuna central to the lifestyle.

• a fear of the police was the hippies would use harder drugs (like herorin), and eventually they did due to polarisation.

• distrust between police and hippies led to crime so social control processes created more crime.

Triplett (2000): impact of labelling for social policy/law

attempt to punish/control the youth had the opposite effect as led to crime rates increasing

Braithwaite (1989): shaming

2 diff types of shaming experienced by someone with a deviant label

Disintegrating shaming: crime and criminal is both labelled as bad so offender excluded from society.

Reintergarting shaming: labelling the act, not the actor (criminal) as bad for the deviant act.

• society should avoid stigmatising the offender as evil focusing on crime instead making them aware of the impact on society their action has had to make it easier to reintegrate them into society.

eval- some criminals being released into the wild puts the public at danger (Sutcliffe arrested while WITH a prosituie).

marxists view on labelling theory and crime

fails to examine links between labelling and capitalism- RC makes rules enforced upon WC.

Young (1997)

approaches to crime (1997):

• there is a “crisis in explanation”of crime as some deny it’s existence.

relative deprivation (1999):

• increasing inequality and emphasis on material success has exacbated the issue of relative deprivation as a motive for crime. the “lethal" combination is relative deprivation and individualism” as is weakens socialisation.

neo-marxist

Lea and Young

3 related causes of crime (1984):

1- relative deprivation:

• deprived individuals compare what others have to their expectations of what they’re entitled to consume.

• the more prosoprious society causes this as means more crime occur because of relative deprivation.

• Young 1999- increased inequaltity and emphasis on material success excavated issue.

2- subcultures:

• may develop stragties/subcultures to cope with the relative subcultirism.

• criminal subcultures still subscribe to society’s goals, but as legitimate opportunity structures blocked crime more appealing- can also be relgious subcultures so eval of not every subculture encourages crime.

3- Marginaliston:

• the criminals lack power, influence, clear goals and organisatons which represent their interests.

• unemployed youth are marginalised as no goals or organisatons just frustration and resentment.

on ethinictht and crime:

• they accept that there are racist practises in the police force but also believe that there are real differences in rate of offences between white and ethinic people.

• trust police stats, and think that black people do commit more crime than white people.

critique aganist Paul Gilroy:

• romanticses street crime.

• most crime committed by black people is inter-racial.

Murray and Hernstein ( 1985)

biological reasons for crime (1985):

• biological theory that suggests some people innately pre-disposed to crime. personalisty traits that increase the likeihood of crime include risk taking, low impulse control and extrovisiaon.

intelligence reason for crime (1994):

• main cause of crime when biologically driven is low intelligence as it’s biologically determined. Reached this conclusion via a IQ test.

right realists

Jones (1998)

relative deprivation isn’t a perquisite to crime as don’t have to be deprived to be a criminal (andrew). a deterministic view.

Henry and milocanoic (1996)

left realism ignores the harmful crimes committed by corporations and the damage done to the poor by powerful groups.

Hughes (1991)

left realism fails to explain the cause of street crime with offender’s motives not explained.

Kinsley, Lea and Young (1986)

• police centred solution to reduce crime from left realism peresepctive

police’s low clear up rates reason for crime rates as they don’t work as a deterrent suggesting that better policing is solution.

police’s dependecey on public input for information is a weakness as support differs depending on the communities (hundreds of calls went into the London met after Stephen lawerance’s murder all saying who did it).

emphasised the importance of the police becoming accountable, improving relationships with the local community and changing piorties e.g. stop over policing drug crime.

the casey report (2023)

less than 50% of women in London trust London met to keep women and girls safe.

public trust in the police at a all-time low.

public trust in the police was 89% march 2017 but was 60% in march 2022.

public confidence of the met to do a good job was 70% march 2016 compared to 45% march 2022.

trust that the met can do a good job for London was 74% in June 2017, but was 36% in march 2022.

Chambliss: saints vs roughnecks

saints and roughnecks (2 diff juvinelle groups studied:

2 different juviinle groups studied.

• MC saints: caused deliberate offences (such as car accidents) but compared to the WC roughnecks got less attention from law enforcement and if they did had ability to get out of legal trouble.

• WC Roughnecks: more likely to be labelled due to pre-existing expections of their class and how their crimes were more visible (vandalism and street crime both more obvious and visual). lacked ability to negotiate their way of trouble.

state crime:

• act defined by domestic law broken by a criminal and committed by state officials

capitalism and crime (1975):

• laws protecting private proptry are the cornerstone of capitalist economy with weaker laws around trade unions (e.g. Nigel lawson’s reduction of gains capital tax)

Murray (1990)

• right realist

crime is rising due to the growth of the underclass- a socioeconmic group defined by deviant behaviour and failure to adequately socialise their childern.

the crime rise is caused by welfare depdencey and leads to a increase of lone parent families.

not helped by the fatherless households as fathers typically discipline children.

Walker

• neo-marxist

the values of the underclass don’t cause crime- the lack of legitimate oppounity structures is to blame instead.

Alcock

a nucelar family is just as likely to produce poorly socialised childern (Susan Atkins grew up in one in a middle class household).

Ron Clarke- rational choice theory (1980)

right realist

rational choice theory:

• individuals have free will and the power of reason.

• descion to commit a crime based on rational calculations of likely risks and potential benefits (cost/benefit anaylysis).

• If benefits outweigh risks likelihood of offence increases especially for street crime (a common concern amongst realists).

• proposes idea that to reduce crime, the risk must be increased.

• eval of not all crimes rationally thought out e.g. candy Montgomery stuck Betty gore with a ax 41 times or how red mist common in violent crimes.

• memory prompt- what Sidney and Tatum do in act 3 to Jessica (a ghostface)

situational crime prevention (1992):

• based on rational choice theory. boils down to increasing the risks associated with committing crime to reduce it. “but simply reducing the opportunity for crime.”

Felson

rountie activity theory (1988):

• for a crime to occur there must be:

• 1- a motivated offender.

• 2-suitable oppounity/target (a victim- Sutcliffe killed women who were out at night alone).

• 3- absence of a capable guardian (police or neighbourhood watch explaining why Sutcliffe attached either in dark or on country roads).

• offence less likely to be committed if Guardian present as the offender thinks rationally.

• informal guardians (from the community like neighbour watch) more effective than police as more personal and attached to the community.

eval of purist approach/jewkes:

• dramatic fallacy’- media overplays extradionary crimes such as Elizabeth Smart or Maddy McCann.

New York port authority (1998):

• example of situational crime awareness working

  • crime rates high with public loos used for drugs, sexual interactions, rough sleepers, etc. enabled by design as dark, corners, etc.

  • re-desgined to “design out crime” with large open spaces, CCTV increasing and a toilet attendent. crime sig dropped.

Sutherland

white collar crimes are the type committed by those whilst in the course of a occupation e.g. fraud, insider tradeing, tax evasion.

white collar crime also benefits the individual.

Gordon

criminignonic capitalism:

• capitalims based on private ownership as means of production are concentrated into conglomerates, making crime inevitable as the structure of the capitalist society encourages greed, consumption and self-interest.

• 4 reasons as to why:

• 1- response to consumerism, explaining ulitrian crimes (shoplifting).

• 2-alienation responce as the frutusaton over lack of control of life leads to non-ulitirain crimes (protesting).

• 3- poverty response as crime essential to surieve (baby food/formula most shoplifted food globally).

• 4- capitalism responce as crime can be profitable e.g. not paying employees minimum wage.

David gordon on capitalist society:

• encourage ‘dog eat dog societies’

sneider (1993)

laws and state making: capitalist state reluquent to pass laws regulating activetivys of business.

+

selective law enforcement: white collar crime and corporate crime do more economic and physical harm than street crime by ‘typical’ criminals. more victims. e.g. UK Public Health committee (2024)

reiman

a crime is more likely to considered a crime if committed by the poor- inverse for the rich.

Pearce (1976): impact of laws that benefit WC on RC

benefit RC too as:

• keep workers fit and healthy.

• gives capitalism a ‘friendly face’.

• creates a sense of false class consciousnes wherein workers believe that they exist for their benefit.

Carson (1971)

laws that benefits WC not always enforced.

200 firms broke health and safety laws yet only 1.5% of cases led to prosecution. selective law enforcement clearly evident here as makes crime out to be a working class thing, not something that happens in all socio-economic groups.

eval of Pearce (1976)

taylor, walker and young

• neo-marxists

capiraimist and crime (1973):

• laid out in ‘the new crimology’. agree crime caused by capitalism with laws enforced and created by ruling elites.

• eval of regular marxism.

• rejects theories that crime driven by external forces as voluntaristic sociologists- criminals have free will so crime is active choice- still capitalism driven tho.

boundary maintenance (1973):

• crime is only fuctional for the public punishments, as for society creates suffering only (not all criminals caught- bible John or Sutcliffe)

aimed to create a ‘fully social’ theory of deviance and a comprehensive understanding of crime and deviance to hopefully change society for better.

must consider: wider social factors, social reactions to crime and meaning people assignin to their own actions. only then can crime be understood propley.

Taylor et al

• neo-marxist

Fred and Rose West as an example of how six things must be understood to understand the crime.

1- wider orgins: childhood abuse- sexual, families etc.

2- immediate orgins (crime’s context): vulnerable girls/women who had no one looking for them.

3- the act itself: sexual kicks/feelings of power, control and domination.

4- immediate orgins of societal reactions: rarely acknowledged as few looking for victims.

5-wider societal orgins reactions: Fred initially took brunt of it all as rose’s role not included till suriviar came forward.

6- labelling effects: absence of deviance amplication spiral as neither labelled as criminal with their characsteics (esp rose) having contridcaty effect increasing victims overall.

eval: not applicable to all crimes

on crime and capitalism (Taylor):

• structural inequalities caused by capitalism causes crime so social and community crime prevention don’t address the root of the problem.

  eval of sccp.

4 marker structure/timing

2 x P.E

need a WHAT and a HOW with the phrase ‘this means’ or ‘as a result’ as a connective.

4-5 mins.

Hall et al (1978): capitalism/policing in crisis

• neo-marxist

written in 1970s where capitalism was failing- strikes, recession, political unrest, etc. so ruling classes used forced to quell the opposition that was starting to form around capitalism.

also used media to highlight a apprant growth in muggings, creating the myth of the black mugger. BUT ISA, manufactured moral panic as was simply new name for street robbers.

thus justified more aggressive police action against black people, increasing hostilities towards police.

capitalism marganlised black youth though unemployment increasing likelihood of petty crime for survival.

example of how social class and ethnicity overlap.

30 marker structure+ timings

55 mins

intro optional, conclusion not- make a clear judgement.

6x PEELE paras- heavy on the last eval as avoids the juxtapostion.

all paras don’t have to be on the side of the question- have three not related to the sociological perspective presented in the question.

only bring up relevant sociological theories but Neo-marxism is a excellent analytical paragraph.

office for national statics (2024)

wealthiest 10% of UK holds 43% of wealth.

home office (2024)

areas with the highest deprivation have double the theft and burglary rates.

UK public account committee (2024)

large corporations avoided over £30 billion in tax via offshore schemes- meanwhile HMRC persectures small business for much smaller funds.

ministry of justice stats

ethinicty and crime (2024):

• ethinic groups appear a disportanlty high amount:

• 12% of prison population black british or black- 4% of general population.

• ethinic minortys 27% of prison pop, 18% of general pop.

ethnicity and crime (2022):

• 16% of child homocide victims are are black (4% of general pop)

• whites have had highest guilty plea since 2018- 68% for both crown (more serious crimes like murder or rape) and maristates (less serious crimes like common assault). likely due to how the quality of evidence is much higher.

• 92% of police officers white- 1% black and 4% asian.

• 89% of court judges white- 1% black and 6% asian.

women and the CJS (2021):

• 49% of adult female homocides victims killed in domestic homocide

• TV licences offences committed by 75% women.

• shoplifting most indictable offence for women (21% in 2021).

• for every 100 female prisoners 35 self harm- 13.5 for men.

• police officers 33% women and 67% men.

• females 4% of prison population.

• women have lower average custodial offences.

Bowling and Phillips (2002)

ethinic groups and CPS system (2002):

• police brings weaker evidence to the CPS when dealing with ethinic minortys- due to sterotypes. ethinic groups also have less convictions but higher arrest rates- 2020 stats said that a black person is 9x more likely to be stopped and searched compared to a white person.

ethnicity and victimisation:

• ethnic groups being at higher risk of being a personal victim of a crime due to a higher poroption of ethinic groups living in inner-city areas.

typifications (2007-2012):

• black and asian people are ‘over-policed and under protected’ leading to distrust between those communities and the police.

• demographic factors influence this as ethinic minoritys appear more in groups likely to be stopped and searched. espically high descreion stop and search as that type is due to the suspicions of the officer alone.

Sharp and Budd- findings from the offending crime and justice survey (2005)

• 10,000 participants.

found that:

1- whites are more likely to be offend even for more serious offensces- 42%.

2- robbery is the only crime which black people have highest offending rates.

3- black people most likely to have contact with police, go to court and be convicted.

Newburn

fear of crime:

• there is a higher fear of crime in ethinic groups.

• those who read tabloid newspapers more likely to fear victimisation.

misleading crime coverage (2013):

• most offenders young but media disporantly features older and higher status offenders.

• exegetes risk of victimisation esp if your white, higher status or female (Steve wright, Suffolk stranger, killed 5 protsitues with their low status role making them easy prey)

• crime presented as being a series of indivual events, not examining underlying causes or examining patterns.

effects of globalisation on crime:

• reduced power of the nation states to prosecute offenders e.g. internet fraud.

• criminals take advantage of law variations in counties, moving in-between them to avoid arrest.

the MacPherson inquiry (1999)

after Stephen lawerance’s April 22nd 1993 murder, the 350 page report was published in 1999 by Sir William MacPherson. found the police to be institiuinally racist.

despite having evidence (26 anonymous phone calls about who murdered lawerance) police failed to prostocue those responiable.

3 tried for crime in 1996 but all acquitted- double jeopardy means they couldn’t be re-tired (since been changed). only 2 convicted to life in 2012 out of the five arrested.

metropolitan black police association (2008)

told ethic groups to not join police force as there is ‘hostile atmosphere where racism is allowed to spread.”

fact casey report, in 2023, said similar things about institiuonal racism shows how issue still prevalent.

Paul Gilroy

eval of left-realist view point of crime

• black criminal behaviour is a myth created by police sterotypes and racist labelling.

• black crime is a form of political resistance against a repressive, racist and capitalist state.

• struggles against impleraism in former british colonies taught black people to resit oppression via riots, so they adapted this struggle against racism.

Parmor (2013): Cultural factors

some asian groups experience high levels of deprivation, but less likely to commit a crime as Asian family structures can be larger and more stable, increasing monitoring, social control and household responsibility. all barriers against offending. hence why disadvantaged black people are more likely to offend as higher rates of fatherless households.

self reporting studies show how even disadvantaged asians are less likely to offend.

links to hirschi’s bonds of attachments.

right realist/murray perspective.

Otto Pollock (1950)

men have paternalistic attitude towards women so less likely to harshly punish or have crimes reported (so they don’t even appear in crime stats).

women’s crime seen as a error of judgement; generally less harmful than men’s as the CJS is more lenient on women.

walklate (2004)

CJS’s gender biases:

• CJS biased against women esp for female victims in rape/SA cases as law mistreats them tho some attempts to change e.g. recorded evidence not testifying in person. However, sexual pasts still brought up in rape cases.

• there is a second victmisatoion in trials- esp female victims.

• DV not taken seriously by police, as historically things were ‘just a domestic’.

• eval of pollock’s chivalry theory.

on same sex-theory:

• based on antiquated biological assumptions.

Heidensown

double deviance (1996):

• female offenders treated more harshly than male offenders when they deviate from expected gender norms. e.g. Myra Hindley as she’s still the most hated women in Britain. women esp hated if they commit murder or child-related crimes (e.g. media fasciation with Amanda Knox or maxine Carr).

• people who don’t conform to monogamous heterosexuality more likely to be treated this way.

• eval: candy montgemory acquitted.

control theory (1985):

• patrichail society imposes greater control over women to commit less crime. 3 things support this:

• 1- control at home: domestic roles restrict time and confine women to the home (tho gender roles are changing).

• 2- control at work: behaviour at work controlled by male managers who stop women asserting themselves at work. the glass ceiling stops them from reaching senior positions- reducing opportunity to commit white collar crime.

• 3- control in public: the threat of male violence dictates women’s actions; they may avoid places like pubs/clubs. women will: avoid going out in the dark, fuleled by distorted media’s portrayal of typical attackers (e.g. reclaim the night during Sutcliffe’s murder time and post Sarah Everard) and fear that certain clothing will make them unacceptable.

• women also controlled by the patrichary as women’s/girl’s life relovoles around a ‘bedroom culture’; less likely to commit corporate or white collar crimes (people like Rebekah Brooks, news of the world editor during phone hacking scadnel a anomaly).

intersection of class for women’s crime:

• most female criminals WC, so less likely to be influnced by women’s liberation.

carlen (1997)

women are jailed based on the court’s assessments of them as wives/mothers/daughters.

parsons (1955)

differences in crime linked to gender roles in the nuclear family and gender socialisation decreasing crime’s likelihood.

boys engage in ‘compensatory compulsory masculnity” e.g. shoplifting as a source of masculnity.

Pat Cohen: class and gender deal

cites hitachi’s bonds of attachments.

basically WC women conform though the promise of 2 deals: the class deal (material rewards will follow hard work to improve standard of life and leisure opposite, reducing need for crime) + gender deal (conform to domestic roles meaning promised material and emotional rewards).

interviewed WC female prisoners as it was revealed that both deals failed to get them out of poverty with no legitimate oppo structures with family life promising few reawrds- abusive husbands, thus increasing need and oppoyuinty for crime.

“crime was the only route to a decent standard of living. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain.”

Adler

changes in society has led to women having greater self-confidence and taking on traditional gender roles. so commit crimes typically committed by men- due to women’s greater self confidence and fact they now have greater oppos in legit oppounity structure.

Denscombe (2001)

women are just as likely to engage in risk taking behaviour.

Kings college London (2026)

surveyed 23,000 people across 29 countries (Brazil, UK, etc).

• Globally 31% of Gen-z men think that women should obey their husbands- baby boomers is 13%. This varied across countries however as across all groups only 4% of swedes thought this whereas 66% of Indonesia thought that.

• 21% of Gen-z men said men who participated in child care-giving less masculine than those who didn't (8% baby boomer men).

• In britisin only 14% personally said women should take on most childcare responsibility, but 43% said women excepted to be mostly or entirely responiable.

Heidenson and Silvestvi

rising female crime rates could reflect a increase in women’s crimilsation due to media emphasising female violence- deviance amplification spiral.

Messerschmidt (1993)

men often commit crimes to achieve and assert their masc, especially if they have a low social status.

apples to both WC and MC men as it covers crimes from white collar (comiption) to miller’s focal concerns.

Greer and Reiner

media and crime (2012):

• increase in newspaper coverage of crime in recent decades, esp in tabolids.

• TV news coverage of crime similar to tabolids.

• crime key theme in TV dramas/film (killing eve, blue lights, unbelievable, line of duty).

• video games have a high proportion of violent/criminal content (grand theft auto).

reasons for a crimogenic media (2012):

• 1- opportunity: media causes crime by encouraging consumption, creating more motives for crime.

• 2- absence of control: CJS shown to be corrupt, racist and imcopmtent discouraging co-operation and glamorising offenders (villainanine).

• 3- means: demonstrates how to commit crimes and get away with them e.g. how to dispose a body or best places to stab.

• 4- motive: increased feelings of relative deprecation as motives increase. even for mysgoniy crimes as women success’s cocisifning with the manosphere.

if violence effects audience:

• several factors influence whether or not witenssing violence has a effect on the audience.

  e.g. if the crime is rewarded, punished or justified (ghostface is always killed plus Walter white’s initial crime of drug making is justified as needs the money). also the vulnerability of the viewer or the context surrounding the violence (domestic abuse in film or Sidney Prescott’s kills).

Jewkes

media and crime (2015):

• most crime coverage perpetuation version of reality that maintains status quo as public will continue to label/crimanlsie certain groups.

• on news values:

• specific news values apply to crime stories:

• 1- celebrity (Alec Baldwin and the 2021 Rust shooting).

• 2- simplicity (brock turner).

• 3- unexpetdness (Elizabeth smart).

• 4- violence (Jack the Ripper and Sutcliffe).

• 5- sex involvement.

• 6- proximity.

internet and crime (2005):

• internet creates new oppos to commit convential crime (like fraud) and new crimes using ‘new tools’ like software privacy.

impact of fear of crime:

• fear of crime hard to measure and fear caused by high profile crimes often short lived.

S.Cohen and Young (1973)

crime coverage covers both facts and manufactures a picture of crimes present in society.

Travis (2015)

home office began estimating online crime and found that total amount of reported crime doubled e.g. fraud.

5.1 million esteemed incidents of online fraud and 2.5 million other cyber crimes.

Wall (2001), 4 types of cyber crime:

1- cyber-deception like piracy or fishing.

2- cyber-porngraphy like deep fakes or cyber flashing (dick picks).

3- cyber- trespassing.

4- cyber-violence and stalking e.g. baby reindeer case had email bombdrantets.

Held

globication is increasing the interconnectivity of the world

castells (2010)

globalisation and

crime activity tends to be centred on courntirries where there is weaker states and law enforcement (colomubi and concaine). sales of their products are seen in richer and more profitable markets e.g. UK/USA.

global crimes and econmony, politics/culture:

• criminal’s captain can impact state as it can be so great sometimes.

• organisationed crime closely linked to gov corruption, disorienting policing and preventing effective law enforcement.

• makes criminal career more appealing to young people as a legit career path.

global criminal economy involved development of networks that cut across national boarders:

1- increasing levels of crime esp. transnational organised crime.

2- created new oppos for more crime.

3- new types of offences.

post modernist

beck

late modernist

globusation of crime:

• globidsation of crime creates a new global awareness of risk from frogein countries (immigrants), amplifying fear of outsiders.

global risk society (1992):

• manufactured risks increase due to a) economic growth increase and b) the tech that sustains it. these manufactured risks are new and avoidable.

  major risks we face today are created by humanity e.g. increased use of cars and air pollution or water shortage and AI.

  a late modern society has global risks rather than local that affect all social groups- cause detrimental harm to the enviroment.

Tayler

globalisation of crime increases it as increases capitalism.

TNCs shift production to NEEs as ability to offer lower wages- so corporate crime.

Ruggerio

decline in European employment leads to a growth in small firms who operate outside of the formal economy, hence they can avoid labour laws; pay below mimium wage.

Hobbs and Dunningham

crime still locally based but with successful criminals also having global connections.

less rigidly hierarchal, and more flexible organisations based on locally connected criminal networks. cournty lines smuggling for instance.

Halsey and whyte

green crime causesd by the domainance of capitalist economy as it priozises economic growth over the enviroment.

Walters (2010) on capitalism and green crime

biopiracy (type of green crime) when companies illegally take control of lands making it impossible for the residents to actually live there e.g. AI data centres impact on local areas.

comparative engineering of nature (like fracking) as cause harm to enviroment. GMOs for instance.

Emmons and Sitini (2000)

trad crimigeloxials

environmental crime is an “unauthorised act of omission that violates the law”

white

green crimogenly (2008):

• if harm is done to the environment, human or animals then that is green crime, regardless of legal status (AI not illegal but uses up lots of water).

green crime:

• laws around green crimes vary between cournties. legal defos of crime can’t provide a consensus view on the harm of environmental damage.

• marxist pov as rich and wealthy make the law.

2 types of green crime:

-1- autropentinic: human centred view of harm as it assumes that people have the right to dominate nature for their own ends; put economic needs over the economy. only becomes a issue when it harms humans.

2- ecocentric: humans and enviroment interdependent so environmental crime is harmful irrespective of it it causes harm to humans.

south (2008), types of green crime

1- primary: committed directly against the enviroment e.g. deforestation as it destroys earth’s natural resources.

2- secondary: delibate breaking of the laws in a attempt to protect the enviroment. includes state violence against opposition groups and illegal waste dumping. rainbow warrior- Greenpeace ship- sunk by France in 1985 as it was protesting about whaling/fishing.

Green and Ward

on state crime’s definition:

• SC is ‘illegal or deviant activities' perpuarted by, or with complicity of, state agencies".

on why human rights violation shouldn’t define state crime:

• universal standards are impossible- human rights violations should be judged by a variety of social audiences (victims, NGOs, charities, etc).

on issues with studying state crime:

• research can be difficult and dangerous.

McLaughlin’s catergaotiaons of state crime

1- political crimes e.g. corruption or censorship. E.g. the PPE contracts during covid given to minister’s friends.

2- Crimes by secuitiy or political forces e.g. genocide or unjustified use of violence against protesters (Bloody Sunday).

3- economic crimes (violating H&S laws- Grenfell as Kensington and Chelsea council took lowest bidder of £8.1 million and 72 died).

4- social and cultural crimes e.g. institiuinal racism, oppression (Stephen Lawrence or apartheid).

turner

human rights being violated shouldn’t define state crime as impossible to enrodece ideas of human rights on counties, or the punishments.

H and J Schwendinger

human rights as a metric for state crime is flawed:

• sociologists should support human rights and expose state’s abuses. transgressive sociological approach as criminality more important than country’s laws.

on state crime defo:

• SC violatioan of basic human rights by states and their agents. a zemilogical approach as harm defines criminality.

Zizek

UN rights effects white, male property owners rights.

the UN

Malezevic (2015):

• declared there are “fundamental inalienable rights”. include things like “right to life, liberty… nationality, freedom of free thought and relgion”.

victimisation:

• a person who suffers harm, economic loss, loss or impairment of their rights though acts of omission that violate laws of the state.

• harm pyschological, emontial, physcial or mental.

development program (1999):

• castells- drugs trade biggest global business.

• other types of international crime: trafficking, corrutipion, violent crimes, war crimes (US/Israel).

Rote ans Whyte’s SC defo

state crime is action by or in behalf if a state which violates international or domestic law.

Telman and Hamilton on what causes crimes of obideance

what conditions must be in place for a human to go along with state crime.

1- authorisation: actions approved by those in power replace morals with a duty to behave (milligrams obideance experiment).

2- routinisation: if actions become normaialsed then the perpetuator can become detached from that action.

3- dehumanisation: victims become subhuman so normal morality not applicable. e.g. jews in 1930s.

bauman

holocaust example of how modernised tech assisted state crime. 6 million jews killed 1941-45, but if krischnamcht approach taken would’ve taken 180 years. Hungarian Jews arrived summer 1944 and only about 30% surieved as highly efficient.

Stanley Cohen

SC ‘gross violation of human rights’ saying media can draw attention to them.

states develop ‘a culture of denial’ in responce to accusations with three steps.

1. denial of crime- saying victims lying (Hillsborough disaster initially blamed on fans, not responsible police).

2. redefention (it was a accident).

3. justification of actions (maintaining national secuirty- trump and Iran attack).

on issues with studying state crime:

1. not in victim impact surveys or official stats.

2. censorship and power.

3. sociologists relient on media’s reporting- lacks validity.