PS201

Define Psychology

is the scientific study of mind and behavior

Describe the empirical method.

for acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities. (based on measurable data.)

FIRST early school of psychology

Structuralism- Created by William Wundt, he focused on understanding the structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection- a person examines their own conscious experience

Second early school of psychology

functionalism- Created by William James, who was the first American Psychologist. This emphasized how mental activities contributed to basic environmental survival or how an organisms adapted to its environment) , behaviorism, psychoanalysis

Third early school of psychology

SIGMUND FREUD (Psychoanalysis)- Sigmund Freud was a highly influential figure in the history of psychology. Focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior. Founded Psychoanalytic theory, a perspective which dominated clinical psychology for many decades. Theorized that many of his patients' problems arose from the unconscious mind. Believed that one way the unconscious mind could be accessed was through dream analysis. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person's unconscious and early childhood experiences

Fourth school of psychology

John b. watson (BEHAVIORISM)- John B. Watson is known as the father of behaviorism within psychology. Believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible. Instead he focused on observable behavior and ways to bring that behavior under control. Today, behaviorism is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Little Albert Experiment

What is learning?

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

\-Involves acquiring skills/knowledge through experience. Involves conscious and unconscious processes.

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (psychodynamic)

unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality).

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (cognitive)

The mind became the new focus of scientific inquiry. Noam Chomsky. Noam Chomsky was very influential in beginning the cognitive revolution. He believed psychology needed to incorporate mental functioning into its focus in order to fully understand human behavior.

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (physiological)

relating to the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (biopsychology)

These psychologists study how the structure and function of the nervous system generate behavior.

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (humanistic)

Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met, higher-level needs would begin to motivate behavior. Client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed therapists need: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, empathy

Describe each of the perspectives in psychology (behavioral)

Believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible. Instead he focused on observable behavior and ways to bring that behavior under control. Today, behaviorism is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Describe the types of psychologists (experimental)

use scientific methods to collect data and perform research)

Describe the types of psychologists (clinical)

Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior. Study involves clinical therapy and counseling

Describe the types of psychologists (counseling)

Is a similar discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.

Describe the types of psychologists (psychiatrist)

Is a medical doctor (an M.D. or D.O.) who specializes in mental health, including substance use disorders. Psychiatrists are qualified to assess both the mental and physical aspects of psychological problems, uses medicine

Research designs (cross-sectional)

Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time (such as different age groups).,

Research designs (longitudinal)

Studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Research designs (experimental)

The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, the use of technology)—and the control group does not.

What is the circular scientific process?

Deductive reasoning - results are predicted based on a general premise.All living things require energy to survive (premise), ducks are living things, therefore ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).

Inductive reasoning - conclusions are drawn from observations. You see many fruit growing on trees and therefore assume all fruit grows on treesScientists form ideas (theories/hypotheses) through deductive reasoning.

1\.) Hypotheses are then tested through empirical observations and scientists form conclusions through inductive reasoning.

2\.) When a scientist uses both types of reasoning, they are using the circular method.

Describe the different types of studies/research (case study)

Clinical or case studies focus on one individual.The studied individual is typically in a extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them for the general public. Allows for a lot of insight into a case.Difficult to generalize results to the larger population.

Describe the different types of studies/research (correlation)

Relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does.

Describe the different types of studies/research (naturalistic observation)

Naturalistic behavior is generally hidden under scrutiny or observation.Seeing a police car behind you would probably affect your driving behavior. (Michael Gil) To study the most accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic observation has proven most effective. Through naturalistic observations, any feeling of performance or anxiety of the studied individuals is eliminated. Observer bias - when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations.Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer bias.

Describe the different types of studies/research (survey)

A list of questions that can be delivered in many ways:Paper-and-pencil Electronically Verbally Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of data from a sample (subset of individuals) from a larger population.

Which type of study/research method can prove or disprove cause and effect

can be determined only through an experimental research design

Define the correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables

How do you identify which relationship the two variables have a low, moderate, high, or no correlation?

0-0.19 is regarded as very weak, 0.2-0.39 as weak, 0.40-0.59 as moderate, 0.6-0.79 as strong and 0.8-1 as very strong correlation,

Define and provide an example of a positive

Two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller. height and weight—taller people tend to be heavier

Define and provide an example of a negative

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation.) babies crying and being held, the discovery that those who are held more tend to cry less is a negative correlation

Define and provide an example of a zero correlation.

is scattered they are not in the same direction. no relationship between two variables. For example there is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence

Define and identify the components of an experiment (control group)

Participants that do not experience the manipulated variable. Serve as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study. Experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance.

Define and identify the components of an experiment (experimental group)

The participants that experience the manipulated variable group designed to answer the research question

Define and identify the components of an experiment (independent variable)

Variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter.

Define and identify the components of an experiment (dependent variable)

Variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had.

Define and identify the components of an experiment (random sampling)

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. This form of sampling is preferred because it is more likely that the selected participants will be representative of the larger population (sex, ethnicity, social economic status etc)

Define and identify the components of an experiment (confirmation bias)

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs.

Define and identify the components of an experiment (replication)

Determines reliability of original research design. Can include additional measures that expand on the original findings. Provide more evidence to support the original finding or to cast doubt on those findings.

Describe what it means to use a single-blind

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group but participants do not.

Describe what it means to use a double-blind

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments.

What is the APA or American Psychological Association?

When psychologists complete a research project, they generally want to share their findings with other scientists. The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a manual detailing how to write a paper for submission to scientific journals.) which targets a general audience with an interest in psychology, scientific journals generally publish peer-reviewed journal articles aimed

How does Darwin's theory of Evolution relate to biopsychology?

explaining how the human mind evolved to benefit the individual.

Describe the parts of a neuron (neurotransmitters)

Chemical messenger of the nervous system. Different neurons release different types of neurotransmitters that have many different functions.

Describe the parts of a neuron (dendrites)

branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

Describe the parts of a neuron (axon)

Axons are covered in a myelin sheath made of a fatty substance that insulates axons and allows the signal to travel down the axon quicker.

At the end of the axons are terminal buttons which contain synaptic vessels (storage sites for chemical messengers called neuro

Describe the parts of a neuron (cell body)

SOMA, Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section of the neuron. The cell body contains genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and provides energy to drive activities.

Describe the parts of a neuron (terminal buds)

Stuff that responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons/ holds /sends out neurotransmitters

Describe the parts of a neuron (synapse)

Space between neurons The synapse is the space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.inside. Each vesicle (yellow bubbles) contains about 10,000 neurotransmitter molecules.

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (central)

holds brain and spinal cord.

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (peripheral)

holds the nerves has autonomic, somatic, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems brain- Comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. Bilateral (two-sided). Can be separated into distinct lobes but all areas interact with one another

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (Lateralization)

concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (spinal cord)

Delivers messages to and from the brain. Has its own system of reflexes. The top merges with the brain stem and the bottom ends just below the ribs. Sensory nerves bring messages in and up to the brain; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. In moments of survival, automatic reflexes allow motor commands to be initiated without sending signals from sensory nerves to the brain first, allowing for very quick reactions

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (automatic)

controls our internal organs and glands and can be divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nervous systems.

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (somatic)

relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS.

Describe how the nervous system is organized and the different components' purposes (sympathetic)

involved in stress-related activities and functions; prepares us for fight or flight.

Fight or flight response - activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety. , parasympathetic- associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body under relaxed conditions. (Don't have to think about ex. heart pumping, breathing).

Rest and relax response - relaxes the body after fight or flight (aka rest and digest

What is the difference between white matter and gray matter in the brain?

The gray matter is the areas where the actual "processing" is done whereas the white matter provides the communication between different gray matter areas and between the gray matter and the rest of the body. Gray does communication where white helps communication between gray and CNS

What are the folds and grooves on the brain's surface area, otherwise known to be called?

The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)

Identify the four lobes of the brain and their functions (THE FRONTAL LOBE)

Involved in executive functioning (planning, organization, judgement, attention, reasoning), motor control, emotion, and language.

It contains: The Motor cortex - strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement.

The Prefrontal cortex - responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning.

Broca's area - region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production.

Damage to Broca's area leads to difficulties producing language.

Identify the four lobes of the brain and their functions (THE PARIETAL LOBE)

Involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information.

Somatosensory cortex - essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Identify the four lobes of the brain and their functions (THE TEMPORAL LOBE)

Associated with hearing, memory, emotion and some aspects of language. The Auditory cortex - strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information.

Wernicke's area - important for speech comprehension.

Damage to Wernicke's area results in difficulty understanding language.

Damage to Wernicke's area results in difficulty understanding language.

Damage to either Broca's area or Wernicke's area can result in language deficits. The types of deficits are very different, however, depending on which area is affected.

Identify the four lobes of the brain and their functions (THE OCCIPITAL LOBE)

Associated with visual processing. Contains the primary visual cortex which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

Where are the human brain's visual?

(THE OCCIPITAL LOBE) responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

Where are the human brain's auditory

(THE TEMPORAL LOBE) strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information.

Where are the human brain's somatosensory cortexes

(THE PARIETAL LOBE) essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

Describe the roles/functions of the amygdala

involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories. Involved in processing fear.

Describe the roles/functions of the (cerebral cortex)

surface of the brain that is associated with out highest mental capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language and memory. It can be broken up into four lobes, each with a different function.

Describe the roles/functions of the (hippocampus)

structure associated with learning and memory (in particular spatial memory)

Describe the roles/functions of the (cerebellum)

(in the hindbrain") receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

Describe the roles/functions of the (hypothalamus)

regulates homeostatic processes including body temperature, appetite and blood pressure

Describe the roles/functions of the (pons)

in the hindbrain serves to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the brain. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep.

What is the limbic system? The Limbic system is involved in mediating emotional response and memory. What are its functions?

The Limbic system is involved in mediating emotional response and memory. Involved in our behavioral and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviors we need for survival: feeding, reproduction, and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.

Define lateralization

the concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions.

The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.

The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body

Types of Antidepressants

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Noradrenaline and specific serotonergic antidepressants (NASSAs) Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs)Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Neurotransmitters and their purposes (serotonin)

mood and sleep.

Neurotransmitters and their purposes (Norepinephrine)

Heart, intestines, and alertness.

Neurotransmitters and their purposes (Dopamine)

mood, sleep, and learning.

Neurotransmitters and their purposes (Acetylcholine)

muscle action and memory

Neurotransmitters and their purposes (Beta-endorphin*)

pain and pleasure.

What is the difference between instincts and learning

one is behaviors triggered by a broader range of events and learning and the other is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

What type of learning is Classical and Operant Conditioning considered?

associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together.

Define classical conditioning

process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.

Define (unconditioned stimulus)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (food)

Define (unconditioned response)

a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food)

Define (neutral stimulus)

stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell - does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning).

Define (conditioned stimulus)

stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Define (conditioned response)

the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus.

Define operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a theory proposed by B.F. Skinner. In operant conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment). Skinner conducted experiments (mainly with rats and pigeons) to determine how learning occurs through operant conditioning

example of operant conditioning

offering praise when they do something positive. giving them a piece of candy when they clean their room. letting them play video games after they complete their homework.

Define positive reinforcement

to add something to increase behavior

example of positive reinforcement

giving you a treat for doing homework

Define negative reinforcement

take something away to increase behavior

Examples of negative reinforcement

Getting up from the bed to avoid the noisy alarm. Taking an antacid before having a spicy meal. Applying sunscreen before heading to the beach to avoid getting sunburned

Define positive punishment

to add something to decrease the behavior

Example of positive punishment

adding more chores to the list when your child neglects their responsibilities.

Define negative punishment

take something away to decrease a behavior

Example of negative punishment

Toby's teacher confiscates his phone for using it during class time

Define shaping

in this instead of rewarding only the target behavior, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior.Commonly used by animal trainers.(

example of shaping

riding a horses back they don't usually like it but you shape them to like it/ behavior)

Define partial reinforcement schedules

the organism does not get reinforced everytime they display the desired behavior (they are reinforced intermittently)..

Example of partial reinforcement schedules

Facebook users checking to see how many likes they received for a post