AP World History Unit 3: Land-Based Empires (finished!)

politics/military of the Ottoman Empire

-Mehmed II used war tactics as a display of power, such as the establishment of a fortress on the European side of Constantinople to create a choke point for European reinforcements, allowing him to capture the city
-Ottomans used Devshirme system, in which Ottoman officials entered Christian territories and had families send out young boys for inspection and selection into the army; Janissary force
--especially brave Janissaries later promoted to civil service and could become part of the Sultan's inner circle

expansion of the Ottoman Empire

-Ottomans utilized military conquest to expand empire with forces
--Devshirme and Janissary system
--common tactic was establishment of fortresses near enemy cities to prevent reinforcements from entering these cities, starving the inhabitants and/or cutting off their military

resistance and rivalries of the Ottoman Empire

-Ottomans treated conquered peoples fairly well, avoiding major rebellions
--offered some Janissaries education and higher positions after their service
--practiced religious tolerance
--established comparatively low taxes
-conflict for the throne was created when the tradition of naming the eldest son the heir was broken, shifting the system to one in which siblings had to kill each other to compete for power
-when Mehmed II came into power for the second time, the Janissaries, still loyal to his father, were skeptical of his rule and slightly rebellious
--by the end of his reign, the Janissaries were tired and mutinous and prominent religious leaders were angered by his attempts to legitimize his power through religious means
-Empire had a long-standing rivalry with Christian Europe and especially the Byzantine Empire

religion/culture of the Ottoman Empire

-dominant religion became Islam after the fall of Constantinople
--emperor replaced by Sultan
--rule legitimized by shariah instead of Justinian Law

economics of the Ottoman Empire

-Devshirme system allowed Janissaries to become civil service workers
--some became tax collectors

social structure and gender roles of the Ottoman Empire

-harem politics allowed women a degree of control over who succeeded the throne

decline of the Ottoman Empire

-following the death of Suleiman, a Spainiard and Venitian force defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Lepanto, a naval conflict
-European neighbors began to strengthen
--defeated in the Siege of Vienna
--British and French became involved in Ottoman territories
--Greece gained independence in 1821
--Russia expanded in the 19th cen
-a series of weak sultans came into power
--successors limited by harem politics

politics/military of the Safavid Empire

-first established by the Safavid order of Sufism, a branch of Islam focused on mysticism
--used Shi'a Islam to not only unify the Empire under a common religion but also to support the line of Shah Abbas I and deny legitimacy to Sunni Muslims
-maintained power through displays of military force
--used a similar system to the Ottoman Empire to choose Christian boys to become soldiers in the army
--imported European weaponry and used European advice about newly acquired military innovations

expansion of the Safavid Empire

-Safavids used primarily military means to contribute to the expansion of their empire
--land-based military; actually had a lacking navy
--recruited Christian boys into troops
--imported European weapons
--used European advice on how to utilize new military innovations
-used religion to unify conquered peoples
--Shi'a Islam

resistance and rivalries of the Safavid Empire

-by establishing Shi'a Islam as the religion of the Empire, they created a rivalry with Sunni Muslims that continues today
--stopped by the Ottomans at Tabriz, a Persian city that became part of the Shi'a-Sunni border
-also entered a conflict with the Ottomans over the control of trade routes
--Ottomans used embargoes against Safavid silk traders

religion/culture of the Safavid Empire

-originated from the Safavid order of Sufism, a branch of Islam focused on mysticism
-used Shi'a Islam to unify the religious beliefs of the Empire

economics of the Safavid Empire

-Zamindars, paid government officials, were in charge of taxation and construction
--later paid in land but allowed to keep a portion of the taxes they collected
--began to keep larger portions of taxes to use for personal armies
-peasants contributed ⅓ of produce to the government

social structure and gender roles of the Safavid Empire

-women were "permitted" to participate in society, but were rarely mentioned in historical texts
--rights to inheritance and divorce provided by Islamic law
-still veiled and restricted in where they were allowed to go

decline of the Safavid Empire

-the empire's leaders following Shah Abbas spent wealth on lavish lifestyles and military spending, weakening the economy
-Sunni Pashtuns rebelled in 1722
--unable to quell rebellion
--sacked Isfahan
--leader, Mahmud, declared himself the Shah of Persia
-Overall chaos impeded centralization and tax collection
-Ottomans and Russians were able to take control of Safavid territories
--replaced by Zand Dynasty in 1760

politics/military of the Mughal Empire

-central government was similar to that of Suleiman Turkey (reference to the Ottoman Empire)
-the Mughal Empire was largely built, maintained, and expanded through flourishing trade
--textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones exchanged for silver and gold
--merchant classes supported and allowed to participate in banking and handicraft production
--most overseas trade done by Arab merchants

expansion of the Mughal Empire

-Mughal Empire used primarily trade to expand
--textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones exchanged for silver and gold
--merchant classes supported and allowed to participate in banking and handicraft production

resistance and rivalries of the Mughal Empire

-Aurangzeb sought to rid the Empire of Hindu influence and convert India to Islam
--intolerance of other religions led to uprisings by the Hindus, Sikhs, and others
-revolts among both the Hindu and Islamic princes

religion/culture of the Mughal Empire

-religious tolerance was practiced during the time of Akbar's rule
--gave money and/or land to Hindus and Muslims
--donated to the construction of a Catholic church in Goa
--invited Catholic priests to Delhi to explain the religion to him
--provided land grants for Sikhism
--gave Hindus government positions, took Hindu wives, and exempted Hindus from non-Muslim taxes
-also encouraged the spread of knowledge, art, and literature
--attempted to prevent child marriages and the self-destruction of widows
-only Islam tolerated during the time of Aurangzeb's rule

economics of the Mughal Empire

-flourishing trade system
--textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones exchanged for silver and gold
--supported the merchant class; allowed to participate in banking and handicrafts
--most overseas trade done by Arab merchants
-said to be one of the richest states in the world

social structure and gender roles of the Mughal Empire

-Indian society under the Mughal Empire separated into jatis/castes
--Brahmins/priests, Kshatriyas/warriors, Vaishyas/commoners, Shudras/servants, and Untouchables

decline of the Mughal Empire

-by the rule of Aurangzeb, corruption and lack of innovations had significantly weakened the Empire
--he attempted to expand the Empire anyway, but drained the treasury on Southern expansion
--unable to quell peasant rebellions
--uprisings due to oppression of Sikhs, Hindus, and members of other religions
--revolts among Hindu and Islamic princes
-British and French gained economic power in India
--British assumed political power in the 19th cen

politics/military of the Qing Dynasty

-legitimized power by claiming the Mandate of Heaven
-Emperor Kangxi sent forces to (successfully) overtake Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia
-established a protectorate over Tibet
-Emperor Qianlong sent military campaigns to the West of China, leading to the annexation of Xinjiang
--established dominance over the region through mass killings
-put the Dalai Lama on the Taiwanese throne
-campaigned against the Nepalese

expansion of the Qing Dynasty

-various military campaigns formed the main method of expansion
--Emperor Kangxi sent forces to (successfully) overtake Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia
--established a protectorate over Tibet
-Emperor Qianlong sent military campaigns to the West of China, leading to the annexation of Xinjiang
--put the Dalai Lama on the Taiwanese throne
--campaigned against the Nepalese

resistance and rivalries of the Qing Dynasty

-mass killings upon the annexation of Xinjiang has prevented the Muslim population from fully incorporating into Chinese society/culture
-established trading privileges with European powers but limited to Guangzhou
--British wanted more trading rights; denied
-bureaucracy became corrupted and placed high taxes on the people; led to White Lotus Rebellion by peasants
--uprising crushed

religion/culture of the Qing Dynasty

-Mandate of Heaven used as a way for rulers to legitimize their power
-traditional Confucian values continued to be upheld
--ruler > people
--husbands > wives
--support of the scholar-gentry/bureaucrats
-mass killings upon the annexation of Xinjiang has prevented the Muslim population from fully incorporating into Chinese society/culture

economics of the Qing Dynasty

-unsuccessful campaigns against Burma and Vietnam led to major economic deficits
-bureaucracy became corrupted during the later half of Emperor Qianlong's rule and placed high taxes on the people; led to White Lotus Rebellion by peasants
--uprising crushed
-collected tributes from various tributary states
--ex. Korea

social structure and gender roles of the Qing Dynasty

-traditional Confucian values
--scholar-gentry and bureaucracy promoted
--leader > people
--husbands > wives
--parents > children

decline of the Qing Dynasty

-unsuccessful campaigns against Burma and Vietnam led to major economic deficits
-corrupt officials and raised taxes led to uprisings such as the White Lotus rebellion
--desire to return to the Ming Dynasty

politics/military of the Russian Empire

-Ivan the Terrible authorized Stroganovs to hire peasant warriors known as Cossacks to fight local tribes and the Siberian khan
--led to control of the Volga River
-fur traders and militias were used to defeat indigenous tribes during eastward expansion into Siberia
-Ivan the Terrible utilized the oprichnina, a semi-military force owing direct loyalty to him, in order to establish dominance over the boyar class
-Peter the Great established a senate during his rule to advise government officials in the event that he was away

expansion of the Russian Empire

-Ivan the Terrible took control of the Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberian khanates
--(pushed border eastward)
-gained control of the Volga River with Cossack efforts
--allowed Moscow to expand trade with Persia and the Ottoman Empire directly
-moved into Siberia following Ivan the Terrible's reign
--missionaries began converting people to the Eastern Orthodox faith

resistance and rivalries of the Russian Empire

-Eastern Orthodox faith pushed by missionaries was met by resistance from local shamans, who retained their influence with indigenous tribes
-during the rule of Peter the Great, the Church, boyars, and members of the tsar's royal family came into conflict (tradition vs. desire for power)
--Peter > half-sister Sophia and boyar-led military (Streltsy); forced her into a convent
--continued conflict with the Streltsy led to rebellion; resulted in incorporation into the regular army
-church reforms largely opposed by peasants and Old Believers

religion/culture of the Russian Empire

-tsars traditionally claimed a divine right to rule
-Peter the Great asserted authority over the Orthodox Church by abolishing the position of head of the church and merging the church with government
--replaced the head of the church with the Holy Synod (clergymen and a secular official loyal to the tsar)
--made the minimum age for conversion to monkhood 50 to encourage young men to become soldiers

economics of the Russian Empire

-the peasant class fell into greater and greater debt and was forced into a widespread system of serfdom throughout Russia
-Peter the Great began paying Provincial officials a salary instead of having them scrounge for bribes/fees/taxes
-also established new industries during his rule
--shipyards in St. Petersburg
--iron mines in Ural Mountains
--encouraged private metallurgy, woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, and mining
--raised taxes to compel workers to work in the shipyards
-land tax later replaced by head tax, furthering debt

social structure and gender roles of the Russian Empire

-very rigid social hierarchy
--boyars/nobles at the top
--merchants in the middle
--peasants at the bottom
-peasants were pushed into debt until a massive system of serfdom was established
-conflict between Ivan the Terrible and the boyar class

politics/military of Tokugawa Japan

-ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate
--divided Japan into 250 hans/territories
--daimyos (aristocrats with land) had personal armies
--daimyos were forced to maintain both a home and capital residence, leaving their families in the capital as hostages if they visited their home territory; essentially reduced them to landlords

expansion of Tokugawa Japan

-daimyos utilized samurai to conquer new territories
--rise of gunpowder weapons allowed new daimyos to rise to power and work to unify Japan
--Oda Nobunga took over Kyoto
--Toyotomi Hideoshi expanded Japan to include most of its territory today
--center of power shifted to Edo during Tokugawa's rule

resistance and rivalries of Tokugawa Japan

-a tradition of conflict between daimyos and shoguns left Japan "in disarray"
--Tokugawa essentially reduced daimyos to the role of landlords to prevent them from gaining too much power

religion/culture of Tokugawa Japan

-because Japan is relatively close to China and has been influenced by Chinese values for centuries, Tokugawa Japan was able to incorporate aspects of Confucianism into its society while maintaining certain individual beliefs as well

economics of Tokugawa Japan

-samurai paid in rice and eventually gold
-peasants worked the land and were heavily taxed

social structure and gender roles of Tokugawa Japan

-Mikado/emperor at the top; figurehead without much actual power
-shoguns
-daimyos
-samurai
peasants; 90% of the population
-merchants; bottom class
-some Confucian ideals incorporated into society

decline of Tokugawa Japan

-arrival of the United States and forced opening of Japan to Western trade/influence led to the decline of the Tokugawa dynasty
--Japan was somewhat wary of outsiders
--eventually led to military conflict