apes unit 2

invasive species

invasive species

species that are not native to a specific location and tend to spread, often causing harm to the environment, economy, or human health

characteristics: rapid reproduction, high adaptability, outcompete native species

invasive species: spotted lanternfly, zebra mussel, feral pig

Indicator Species

Species that provide information on the overall health of an ecosystem due to their sensitivity to environmental changes

characteristics; sensitive to pollution or environmental changes, provide early warning oc ecoysstem

ex: frogs, lichens, mayflies

foundation species

plays a crucial role in creating and maintaining the habitat for other species in an ecosystem

characteristics: critical for maintaining ecosystem structure, provides habitat or resources for other species, can have large infuence despite low biomass

examples: beavers, coral reefs, kelp

endangered species

species that are at a very high risk of extintion in the wild

low population numbers, habitat loss or degration, targeted by conservation

amur leopard javan rhinos

threatened species

species that are liekly to become endagnered in the near future

declining population. likely to become endangered, targed by protective legislation

polar bear, logger heae sea turtle, african elephant

endemic species

species that are found only in a particular geographic location and no wehre else

found only in specific regions, high vulnerability to extinction, often adpated to specific local conditoins

lemurs in madagaascar, kangaroos in Australia,

generalist species

species that can thrie in a wide variety of environemtnal conditions and make use of a variety of different resources

high tolerance for environmental variation, broad diet for habitat preference, and can thrive in disturbed ecosystems

racoon, cockroach, coyote

specialist species

specfic habitat or diet requirements and are often specialized to a narrow ecological niche

narrow diet or habitat requirements, low adaptablity to change, often found in stabel ecosytems

koala, giant panda, orchid

keystone species

aniaml or plant that has a huge impact on its ecosystem even if there arent a lot. keeps everything balanced, if they disappear ecosystem can change or even collapse

sea otters, wolves, beavers

trophic cascade

keystone species is removed from an ecosystem so it affects all level belows it like domino

no wolves = deers grow too large = overgrazing and destruction of plants

indicator speceis

specise that gives us a clue about health of ecosystem

no frogs = water quality bad
no lcihens - air qualiry bad
no mayflies = water polluted

biodiversity

variation of life in all forms including ecosystems species and genes across the earth or within a particular habitat

amazon rainforest has high biodiversity with millions of plant, animal and microorganism

genetic diversity

variety of genes within a species or population which allows for differences in traits and adaption to environmental changes

different dog brees show genetic diversity

species diversity

variety of diff species in a particualr regoin or ecosystem

coral reef has high species diversity influcuding fish corals and invetebrates

habitat diversity

variety of habitats within an ecosystem or region which can support a wide range of species

wetland area with ponds forests and marshes supports diverse bird amphibian and plant species

species richness

number of different speceis within a particular area or ecosystem

tropcial forest w 200 species > temperate forest of 50 species

species eveness

how evely indiivdulas are disributed among the species in an area. high evenlss means no single speces dominates the ecosystem

forest with even numbers of trees for oak and pine has high species eveness

founder effect

The founder effect occurs when a group from a species separates from the other species, leading to less genetic diversity and a change in the percentage and frequency of genes and traits within this new founder population compared to the original group.

The Afrikaner population of South Africa, descended from a small group of Dutch settlers, has high rates of Huntington’s disease due to the founder effect.

population bottleneck

sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environemtal events → leads to a loss of genetic diversity

• Example: Northern elephant seals experienced a population bottleneck due to intense hunting in the 19th century, reducing their population to fewer than 100 individuals. Today, despite their recovery in numbers, they have much less genetic diversity.

How is Resiliency Related to Ecosystem Diversity?

Resiliency refers to an ecosystem's ability to recover from disturbances or changes, such as natural disasters or human activities. Ecosystems with high biodiversity (genetic, species, and habitat diversity) are more resilient because:

• Greater genetic diversity allows populations to adapt to changing conditions (like climate change or disease).

• Species diversity ensures that if one species declines, others can fill its role, maintaining ecosystem balance.

• Habitat diversity provides a variety of niches for species, making the ecosystem more adaptable to disruptions.How Does a Population Bottleneck Affect Genetic Diversity?

How Does a Population Bottleneck Affect Genetic Diversity?

A population bottleneck dramatically reduces a population’s size, leaving fewer individuals to reproduce. This causes:

• Loss of genetic diversity: With fewer individuals, there are fewer gene variants (alleles), which can reduce the population's ability to adapt to future environmental changes.

• Increased inbreeding: The surviving population is more likely to interbreed, increasing the risk of genetic disorders and reducing overall population health.

• Vulnerability to extinction: With less genetic variation, the population is more vulnerable to diseases, environmental changes, or other threats that it can no longer adapt to as easily.

habtitat loss affecting pseicalist species

• High vulnerability: Specialist species rely on very specific habitats and resources, so when their habitat is lost or altered, they struggle to survive.

• Narrow range of tolerance: They cannot easily adapt to new environments or food sources, making them more prone to extinction.

  • Examples: Giant pandas rely on bamboo forests; habitat loss makes it difficult for them to survive.

habitatloss affecting generalist species

How Habitat Loss Affects Generalist Species:

• Greater adaptability: Generalist species can thrive in a wide range of environments and use a variety of resources, so they are more resilient to habitat loss.

• Opportunistic behavior: They can move to new areas or switch to different food sources if their habitat is disturbed.

• Examples: Raccoons can live in urban, suburban, and forested areas, giving them more flexibility when their habitat is changed.

better to protect habitat or save indiivudal species

Is It Better to Protect Habitats or Save Individual Species?

• Protecting habitats:

  • Conserving whole ecosystems supports multiple species, including specialists and generalists.

  • Maintains ecosystem services (e.g., water purification, pollination, carbon sequestration).

  • Prevents habitat fragmentation, which can harm both generalist and specialist species.

  • Helps maintain biodiversity by protecting the relationships between species (e.g., predator-prey, pollinators).

  • Supports the resilience of ecosystems to recover from disturbances like climate change or human activity.

• Saving individual species:

  • Important for critically endangered species that may not survive without direct intervention (e.g., captive breeding programs).

  • Can raise public awareness and garner support for broader conservation efforts.

  • However, focusing solely on individual species can ignore underlying habitat issues that threaten other species and ecosystem stability.

Conclusion:

• Best approach: Protecting habitats is generally more effective for long-term biodiversity conservation, but in certain cases, saving individual species is necessary for critically endangered species. A balance of both strategies can be key

changes in soil depth and nutrient content help accomadat diff vegetation

Changes in soil depth and nutrient content play a critical role in determining what types of vegetation can grow in an area. Here's how these factors accommodate different vegetation:

### Soil Depth:

- Shallow soil: Supports smaller plants with shallow root systems. These plants often have short life cycles and are adapted to drier conditions since they can't access deep water reserves.

- Examples: Grasses, shrubs, or small wildflowers.

- Deep soil: Accommodates larger plants with deeper root systems. These plants can access water and nutrients from deeper layers, allowing for greater growth and stability.

- Examples: Large trees like oaks and pines.

### Nutrient Content:

- Nutrient-poor soil: Plants that thrive in these areas are often adapted to low nutrient levels. These plants may have specialized roots or symbiotic relationships with fungi (mycorrhizae) to help extract more nutrients.

- Examples: Pine trees, some grasses, and shrubs found in sandy or rocky soils.

- Nutrient-rich soil: High nutrient availability supports more vigorous growth and denser vegetation. These soils allow for a wide variety of plants, from fast-growing annuals to large trees.

- Examples: Fertile farmlands or forests with rich organic matter, supporting crops, flowering plants, and large deciduous trees like maples.

### Accommodation of Vegetation:

- Areas with deep, nutrient-rich soils are often covered with forests and large plants that require stable, long-term access to water and nutrients.

- Areas with shallow, nutrient-poor soils often support grasslands, deserts, or scrublands, where plants are adapted to harsher, drier conditions and quick access to surface nutrients.

Changes in soil depth and nutrients influence plant root systems, water availability, and competition for resources, determining which plants thrive in a given environment.

provisioning services

Services that provide raw materials and resources directly from ecosystems that humans use.

1. Freshwater
2. Food (e.g., crops,

Anthropogenic disruptions: Overharvesting or pollution can deplete resources such as freshwater and fisherires.

regulating services

Services that regulate environmental conditions and processes, helping to maintain ecosystem stability.

1. Climate regulation, water purification

Deforestation or pollution can disrupt climate regulation and water purification systems.

cultural services

Non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems, including spiritual, aesthetic, and recreational benefits.

1. National parks for tourism 2. Cultural heritage linked to nature

Urbanization or habitat destruction can diminish access to natural spaces for recreation and cultural practices.Supporting Services

Supporting Services

Services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, supporting overall ecosystem function.

1. Nutrient cycling 2. Soil formation

Industrial farming and land-use changes can degrade soil and disrupt nutrient cycling processes.

island biography

Island biogeography studies how plants and animals live on islands and how they got there. It explains why some islands have more species than others and why certain species are only found on specific islands.

Key points:

• Island size: Bigger islands have more types of animals and plants because they offer more space and resources.

• Distance from the mainland: Islands closer to the mainland have more species because it’s easier for animals and plants to get there.

Why Islands Have Endemic and Specialist Species:

Many islands have species that are found only on that island (endemic) or are specialized to live in specific conditions because:

• Isolation: Islands are far away from other places, so species there evolve on their own, creating unique traits.

• Few competitors: With fewer species arriving from outside, the ones on the island can adapt to specific ways of living without much competition.

Threats from Invasive Species:

When new species (invasive species) arrive on islands, they can cause big problems for native animals and plants because:

• Competition: Invasive species can take food and space from the species that have lived there for a long time.

• No defenses: Native species often don’t have defenses against new predators, making them more vulnerable.

• Habitat changes: Invasive species can change the environment, making it hard for native species to survive.

In short, islands have special, unique species, but they are at risk when new species are introduced because they can’t compete or adapt quickly enough.

volcanci eruoption

A volcanic event where molten rock, ash, and gases are released from a volcano, affecting surrounding ecosystems.

Short-term (ash can affect plants/animals immediately) or long-term (soil fertility changes)

Flooding/Sea Level Rise

Rising water levels due to heavy rains, melting ice, or rising sea levels from climate change, impacting coastal or low-lying areas.

Long-term (permanent changes in coastline and habitats)

Increases in Temperature

A long-term increase in average temperatures, often linked to global climate change, affecting ecosystems' stability and species' survival.

Long-term (can cause species extinction or migration)

glaciation

The formation and expansion of glaciers, causing ice sheets to cover land, leading to habitat destruction and species displacement.

Long-term (millions of years, reshapes landscapes and ecosystems)

Drought

A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall that reduces water availability for plants and animals.

Short-term (may last months to years), but long-term impacts if persistent

Wildfire

An uncontrolled fire that rapidly spreads through vegetation, often in forests, grasslands, or areas with dry conditions.

Short-term (recovery period), long-term in some cases (regrowth of forests)

Earthquake

A sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust causing ground shaking, which can disrupt ecosystems through land shifts or landslides.

Short-term (immediate damage), long-term impacts if habitats are permanently altered

Migration

Movement of species from one location to another, often in response to environmental changes, which can lead to changes in local ecosystems.

Short-term (seasonal) or long-term (if species establish permanent populations elsewhere)

Camouflage

If habitats lose their camouflage (e.g., due to deforestation), animals that rely on blending in may be more visible to predators, harming survival.

thick fur

Increased global temperatures could harm animals with thick fur, as they may overheat or struggle in warmer environments.

long beak

If flowers that produce nectar decline due to climate change, birds with long beaks may struggle to find food, affecting their survival.